The empire was nominally elective (Tacit. Ann. xiii, 4), but practically it passed by adoption (see Galba's speech in Tacit. Hist, i, 15) ; and till Nero's time a sort of hereditary right seemed to be recognised. The dan- gers inherent in a militarj' government were, on the whole, successfully averted till the death of Pertinax, A.D. 193 (Gibbon, iii, 80); but outbreaks of military violence were not wanting in this earlier period (comp. Wenck's note on Gibbon, loc. cit.). The army was sys- tematically bribed by donatives at the commencement of each reign, and the mob of the capital continually fed and amused at the expense of the (jrovinces. We are reminded of the insolence and avarice of the soldiers in Luke iii, 14. The reigns of Caligula, Nero, and Do-
Koman Emperor and Empress.
mitian show that an emperor might shed the noblest blood with impunity, so long as he abstained from of- fending the soldiery and the populace.
IV. Foreign Dependencies. — The subjugated countries that lay beyond the limits of Italy were designated by the general name of provinces. The first provisions necessary on the concjuest of a country by the Roman arms were made with a view fo secure the possession by the victorious general, in virtue of the power and authority (imperiimi) intrusted to him by the govern- ment at home. Accordingly the earliest object of at- tention was the ordering of the military power, and the procuring of suitable resources for subsisting the troops. These arrangements, however, were made not without a regard to the pacific relations info which the conquer- ors and the conquered had mutually entered. Acting on the principle that all unnecessary evil was gratuitous folly, the general availed himself of the aid afforded by existing institutions, and only ventured to give dis- pleasure by establishing new ones in cases where the laws and customs of a country were insufficient for his purposes. The civil government was, however, recog- nised, modified, or remodelled by the conqueror, provi- sionally, and only until the Roman senate had made its behests known. " Ordinarily, however, the general who had conquered the province constituted its government, in virtue of a law or decree of the senate in which the constitution (forma prorinci<e) was set forth and estab- lished, or the provisional appointments already made were sanctioned and confirmed. In order to complete these structural arrangements, the general received spe- cial aid from ten senators appointed for the purpose, whose counsel he was obliged to make use of. In thus reforming the legal and social life of a province, the con- querors had the good sense to act, in general, with pru- dence and mildness, having regard in their appoint- ments to local peculiarities and existing institutions, so far as the intended adjunction to the Roman power per- mitted, in order to avoid giving the provincials provo- cation for opposing their new masters. Under ordinary circumstances the government of the provinces was con- ducted by authorities sent for the purpose from Rome. Sometimes, however, as we have seen, petty sovereigns were left in possession of a nominal independence on the borders, or within the natural limits, of the province. Such a system was useful for rewarding an ally, tor em- ploying a busy ruler, for gradually accustoming a stub- born people to the yoke Of dependence. There were differences, too, in the political condition of cities within the provinces. Some were free cities, i. e. were govern- ed by their own magistrates, and were exempted from occupation by a Roman garrison. Such were Tarsus, Antioch in Svria, Athens, Ephesus, Thessalouica. See
ROMAX EMPIRE
90
ROMAN EMPIRE
the notices of the " pohtarchs" and " demos" at Thessa- lonica (Acts xvii, 5-8); also the "town-clerk"' and the assembly at Ephesus (xix, 35, 39 [Conybeare and How- son, Z-i/e q/'*S7. /'«»/, i, 357; ii, 7yj). Uccasionally, but rarely, free cities were exempted from taxation. Other cities were "colonies," i. e. communities of lioman citi- zens transplanted, like garrisons of the imperial city, into a foreign land. Such was Philippi (Acts xvi, 12). Such, too, were Corinth, Troas, the Pisidian Antiocli. The inhabitants were, for the most part, Romans (ver.21), and their magistrates delighted in the Roman title of PraHor (orrparryyof ), and in the attendance of lictors (f'jaliSovxoi), Acts xvi, 35 (Conybeare and Howson, i, 315). See Coi^ony.
Augustus divided the provinces into two classes — (1) Imperial; (2) Senatorial — retaining in his own hands, for obvious reasons, those provinces where the presence of a large military force was necessary, and committing the peaceful and unarmed provinces to the senate. The imperial provinces, at first, were Gaul, Lusitania, Syria, Phamicia, C'ilicia, Cyprus, and /Egypt. The senatorial provinces were Africa, Numidia, Asia, Achfea and Epi- rus, Dalinatia, Macedonia, Sicilj'. Crete and Cyrene, Pi- thy nia and Pont us, Sardinia, Bretica (Dion Cass, liii, 12). Cyprus and Gallia Narboncnsis were subsequently given up by Augustus, who in turn received Dalraatia from the senate. JIany other changes were made afterwards. The governors of those provinces which were assigneil to the senate were called proconsuls (dv^vTraroi, depu- ties; A. V. Acts xiii. 7; xviii, 12; xix, 38), whatever their previous office may have been (Dion. Cass, liii, 13). The imperial provinces, on the other hand, were gov- erned by a Legatus (7rpf(T/3ii7-/)f) or proprietor {avn- arpaTtjyog), even if the officer appointed had been con- sul. The minor districts of the imperial provinces were governed by a procurator {tntTpoTrog, Dion Cass, liii, 15, "steward," Jlatt. xx, 8). Augustus brought all the procurators under his control (Dion Cass, liii, 32). Un- der the republic they had managed the affairs of pri- vate citizens, but under the empire they discharged the duties performed by the qurestors in the senatorial prov- inces. They controlled the revenue and collected the taxes, and their power extended from these matters to justice and administration (Tacit. IHstA, 11). The proc- urators of Judoea seem to have been under the control of the proconsul of Syria, as Quadratus condemned the indiscretion of the procurator Cumanns (Josephus, .4h/. XX, 6, 3; Tacit. Ann. xii, 54). They are called "gov- ernors" (j/ysjit()i'£c) in the New Test. The verb >)y£juo- vtinD is employed in Luke ii, 2 to show the nature of the government of Quirinus over Syria. Asia and Achaia were assigned to the senate, and in each case the title of the governor in the Acts is proconsul (ai'^inraTog, xviii, 12 ; xix, 38). Dion Cass, (liii, 12) informs us that Cyprus was retained by the emperor; but Sergius Pau- las is called in the Acts (xiii, 7) " proconsul." This is quite correct, as Dion adds that Augustus restored Cy- prus to the senate in exchange for another district of the empire. Coins and inscriptions of Cyprus also bear the title "proconsul" (comp. Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul, i, 173 sq.; Akernian, Num. III. of New 7'e5/. p. 41), See Pkoconsul.