RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Calendar Calf
movable feasts of the two faiths accordingly differed and the advocates of the new style dated the days of the month ten days in advance of the old until the end of the seventeenth century. In view of the discrepancies between the two systems the German Protestants devised a third calendar, which was to agree neither with the Gregorian nor the Julian and was to take effect in 1700. In its reckoning of time it agreed with the Gregorian, but its feasts were calculated astronomically according to the meridian of Uraniborg and the Rudolphinian Tables of Kepler. The result was increased confusion and embitterment between Roman Catholics and Protestants, particularly in 1724, 1 744, and 1788, when there was a divergency of a week between the Gregorian and the astronomical Easter. This Protestant calendar was finally suppressed by Frederick the Great in 1775, and the Gregorian calendar became supreme throughout Germany. German Protestants have sought in recent years to transform Easter into an immovable feast, but the plan as yet remains inchoate.
The evangelical reforms of the calendar thus far considered were concerned only with chronology, without regard to the traditional Christian lists of saints and martyrs. There is, however, a tendency among the Lutherans to revise the hagiology of the Church, in view of the Protestant skepticism regarding the existence of many of the saints of tradition and the Christianity ascribed to others. They are offended, furthermore, by the names of such heroes of the Counterreformation as St.
Ignatius Loyola and other opponents
io. Attempts of their sect, while prominent Protes-
to Reform tants, it is felt, should be recognized
the in an ecclesiastical calendar designed
Calendar, for Lutheran use. Such an attempt
was made by Ferdinand Piper in his Evangelischer Kalender (published from 1850 to 1870), in which he sought to transform the hagiology of the Western Church according to evangelical ideas. To increase the interest of the laity in this new list of names, brief biographies were added, and these, 399 in number, were later published separately under the title Zeugen der Wahrheit (4 vols., Leipsic, 1874; Eng. transl., by H. M. MacCracken, 3 vols., Boston, 1879). Piper's calendar, however, failed to secure official recognition in any German church, although in various revisions it has been included in a number of popular calendars in Germany. It is self-evident that only partial success can be attained by any Protestant hagiological calendar in view of the diversity of Protestant conditions and requirements. Apparently, the most that can be done is to add new dates and names, whether these be supplementary or corrective, to the traditional hagiology of the Church, so that, according to the requirements of time or place, a choice may be made from the names associated with any particular day.
(O. ZoCKLERf.)
Bibliography: On the general subject consult: L. Ideler, Handbuch der Chronologic 2 vols., Berlin, 1825-26;
a. J. Weidenbach, Calendarium historico-christianum medii et novi mvi, Regensburg, 1855; W. S. B. Woolhouse, Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew and Mahometan Calendars, London, 1881; Ledouble, La Connaissance des an-
nees et des jours. Traite du calendrier, Soissons,
1887; E. Mahler, Fortsetzung der Wustenfeld'schen Vergleichungs-Tabellen der muhammedanischen und christlichen Zeitrechnung, Leipsic, 1887; J. C. Macdonald, Chronologies and Calendars, London, 1897; F. Riihl, Chronologie des Miltelalters und der Neuzeit, Berlin, 1897; B. M. Lersch, Einleitung in die Chronologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1899 (vol. ii. on Christian Calendar); Encyclopedia Britannica, iv. 664-682 (gives comparative tables); DC A, i. 256-258.
On the origin of the Christian calendar consult: T. Mommsen, Der Chronograph vom Jahre 354, in Abhandlungen der sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, ii. (1850) 547 sqq.; A. J. Binterim, Denkwiirdigkeiten, i. 20 sqq., 7 vols., Mainz, 1837-41; L. Coleman, Ancient Christianity, chap, xxvi., § 5, Philadelphia, 1852; F. Piper, Der Ursprung der christlichen Kalendarien, in Kbniglicher preussischer Staatskalender, 1855, pp. 6-25; A. Lechner, Mitlelalterliche Kalendarien in Bayern, Freiburg, 1891; E. Berfried, Die Ausgestaltung der christlichen Osterberechnung, Mittelwalde, 1893.
On calendars of the Middle Ages useful works are: N. Nilles, Kalendarium manuale utriusque ecclesiw, 4 vol;'., Innsbruck, 1879-85, vols, i., ii., 2d ed., 1897 (a most valuable collection for the Eastern Churches); A. Cave, Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum historia literaria, Appendix, part ii., London, 1698 (describes Eastern calendars); F. Piper, Kirchenrechnung, pp. vi. sqq., Berlin, 1841; idem, Karls des Grossen Kalendarium, ib. 1858; "W. L. Krafft, Kirchengeschichte der germanischen V biker, I. i. 371, 385-387, ib. 1854; F. Kaltenbrunner, Die Vorgeschichte der gregorianischen Kalenderreform, Vienna, 1876; O. E. Hartmann, Der romische Kalender, Leipsic, 1882; J. Weale, Analecta liturgica, 2 vols., London, 1889; H. Grotefend, Taschenbuch der Zeitrechnung des deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit, Hanover, 1898; A. von Maltzew, Menologien der orthodox-katholischen Kirche des Morgenlandes, part i., Berlin, 1900 (Sept.-Feb., German and Slavic and reference to original Gk. text).
For the history of the Gregorian reform consult: F. Kaltenbrunner, Die Polemik ilber die gregorianische Kalenderreform, Vienna, 1877; J. B. J. Delambre, Histoire de Vastronomie moderne, i. 1-84, Paris, 1821; G. S. Ferrari, II calendario Gregoriano, Rome, 1882; the literature under Gregory XIII.
For modern Protestant calendars the following may be consulted: F. Piper, Die Verbesserung des Kalenders, in Evangelischer Kalender, 1850, pp. 1-11; idem, Die Verbesserung des evangelischen Kalenders, Berlin, 1850; W. Lohes, Martyrologium. Zur Erklarung der herkbmmlichen Kalendernamen, pp. 1-12, Nuremberg, 1868; E. Scharfe, Die christliche Zeitrechnung und der deutschevangelische Kalender, pp. 18-28, Stuttgart, 1893.
CALENDAR, HEBREW AND JEWISH. See Day, the Hebrew; Moon, Semitic Conceptions of; Year, the Hebrew; Synagogue. CALF, THE GOLDEN, AND CALF-WORSHIP.
Origin of Calf-worship among the Hebrews (§ 1).
Bull-worship among Other Semites (§ 2).
Bull-worship in Israel (§ 3).
Bull-worship in Judah (§ 4). The story of the worship of the golden calf during the desert journey is given Ex. xxxii. and Deut. ix. 7-21; cf. Neh. ix. 18; Ps. cvi. 19-20; Acts vii. 39-40. The authorized calf- worship of Northern Israel is mentioned I Kings xii. 28-33; II Kings x. 29, xvii. 16; Hos. viii. 5-6, x. 5-6, xiii. 2; II Chron. xi. 15, xiii. 8. The Hebrew term generally applied to the calf is 'egel ; 'eglah in Hos. x. 5 is probably a mistake for 'egel.
It has generally been supposed that the Israelites borrowed calf-worship from the Egyptians, a supposition thought to be supported by the fact that Jeroboam had been recalled from Egypt. But the Egyptian animal-worship was essentially different from the Semitic type, since the Egyptian
Calf Calixtus