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plans for this undertaking were being made, Calixtus died, Dec. 13 or 14, 1124. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: The Epistolce et Privilegia are in MPL, clxiii.; An Epistola spuria, ed. W. Grundlach, is in MGH, Epist., Ui. (1891) 108-109. The Vita by Cardinal Pandulfus Aletrinus, a contemporary, is in ASB, May, v. 14-15, and in MPL, clxiii. Consult: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 322, 376, Paris, 1892; H. Witte, Forschunoen zur Geschichte des Wormser Concordats, Gottingen, 1877; M. Maurcr, Papst Calixt II., Munich. 1889; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iv. 369 sqq., Stuttgart, 1890, Eng. transl., iv. 390-402, London, 1896; U. Robert, Histoire du pape Calixte II., Paris, 1891; idem, Bullaire da pape Calixte II., ib. 1891; Jaffe\ Regesta, i. 270; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 130-149; Bower, Popes, ii. 456-460.
Olixtus III. (Johannes de Struma): Antipope 1168-73, in opposition to Alexander III. (q.v.). After the peace of Venice, he maintained himself for a while at Albano, but on Aug. 29, 1178, he made his submission to Alexander and was restored to the communion of the church, being entrusted with the government of Benevento. (A. Hauck. )
Bibliography: JafFe\ Regesta, ii. 429, 430; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 431-437; Bower, Popes, ii. 514-515.
Calixtus HI. (Alonso de Borja or Borgia) : Pope 1455-58. Born at Xativa in Valencia [Dec. 31, 1378]. After a legal education he became bishop of Valencia in 1429 and cardinal in 1444. On Apr. 8, 1455, being then seventy-seven years old, he was elected pope. He was a man of simple and blameless life, but too weak to cope with the disorders of the time, some of which arose directly from his own partiality for his relatives. Immediately after his accession, he took a vow to carry forward a war against the Turks and atone for the manner in which Europe had looked on supinely at the fall of Constantinople. Legates were sent throughout the Continent to preach a crusade and collect troops and money. Money, indeed, came in, especially through the help of the mendicant orders, in large sums; but the old crusading zeal had died down too far to be rekindled. The tithes which were required, on behalf of the undertaking, from the clergy of France and Germany aroused universal discontent. The doctors of the University of Paris and the clergy of Rouen appealed in 1456 to a general council against the tax, and a similar appeal was made in Germany, not only on this ground but on that of the failure to observe the Vienna Concordat of 1448 in regard to the system of clerical benefices. While endeavoring to put down this rebellious spirit, Calixtus succeeded in assembling a small fleet which sailed (May 31, 1456) to help the Knights of St. John in their dangerous position at Rhodes. The fleet, under the command of the cardinal legate Scarampo, occupied some small islands of the Grecian archipelago, without venturing on a decisive engagement. The Greeks had not the courage to rise in force, and the Christian princes and Italian cities took but a languid interest in the crusade. It was a piece of luck that the victory of the heroic Hunyadi at Belgrade (July 14 and 21, 1456) averted the most pressing peril. The pope was hindered by the consequences of his hostility to Alfonso of Naples, after whose death (June 27, 1458) he refused to acknowledge the claim of Alfonso's natural son Fernando, asserting that the kingdom
reverted as a fief of the papacy to himself. This attitude was the outcome of his desire to advance his own nephews, one of whom, Rodrigo (the future Alexander VI.), he had made cardinal and vice-chancellor of the Roman Church in spite of his being below the canonical age; another, Pedro, he had made duke of Spoleto, destining the Neapolitan crown for him. Calixtus died, however (Aug. 6, 1458), before his unscrupulous designs could break the peace of Italy. His nephews and their Spanish followers left Rome, where, in alliance with the Colonna family, they had been guilty of incessant crimes and violence. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: B. Platina, The Lives of the Popes, ii. 250-257, London, n.d. Consult: A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 126 sqq., Berlin, 1868; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vii. 146 sqq., Stuttgart, 1870, Eng. transl., London, 1900; Pastor, Popes, ii. 317-479; Creighton, Papacy, iii. 178-201; Milman, Latin Christianity, viii. 120 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 238-240.
CALIXTUS, GEORG: The most influential continuator of Melanchthon's theology in the seventeenth century, spokesman of the so-called " syncretism " in Germany at that time; b. at Medelbye (in the district of Tondern, 115 m. n.n.w. of Hamburg), Schleswig, Dec. 14, 1586; d. at Helmstadt, Brunswick, March 19, 1656. His father, pastor at Medelbye, a pupil of Melanchthon, wished to have his son educated in the same way, and after due preparation sent him to the university at Helmstadt, where like-minded friends of Melanchthon, e.g., the humanist Caselius, were still in office. From 1603 to 1607 he studied philology and philosophy, then theology, paying especial attention to the study of early patristics. From 1609 to 1613 he traveled in Germany, Belgium, England, and France, enlarging his ideas, and becoming acquainted with the conditions of the Reformed and Roman Catholic churches, comparing them with those of the Lutheran Church to which he belonged. Thus he developed an irenic tendency which he retained all his life. He was appointed in 1614 professor of theology at Helmstadt, and remained there until his death. A memorial tablet on his house in the little city in the duchy of Brunswick commemorates the activity of this enlightened mind. His life fell in the age of the Counterreformation and the Thirty Years' War, when the hatred of the confessions toward each other had reached its height. The main effort of this irenic theologian was inspired by the idea that theology must have for its prime object not so much pure doctrine as Christian life. Thus he became the creator of theological ethics as a special theological discipline, and therein undoubtedly marks an epoch in the progress of theology; most moral philosophers still follow him in this formal principle. But the danger was thereby incurred of detaching ethics from dogmatics and building the former without the necessary religious foundation. In the second place he endeavored to bring about a union of all Christian churches, taking the Apostles' Creed and the consensus of the first five centuries as a dogmatically and ecclesiastically sufficient norm. He aspired to a union of all Christian confessions. For this reason he took part in the Conference of Thorn (see Thorn, Con-