RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Carroll Carthage
General Assembly to make the usual congratulatory speech. He was four times moderator of the General Assembly.
Bibliography: State-Papers and Letters Addressed to William Carstares, with life by J. M'Cormick, Edinburgh, 1774; R. H. Story, William Carstares, a character and career of the revolutionary epoch, 1649-1715, London, 1874; DNB, ix. 187-190.
CARTER, JAMES: American Presbyterian; b. in New York Oct. 1, 1853. He graduated at Columbia College in 1882, and at Union Theological Seminary in 1885. He was pastor at Williamsport, Pa., from 1889 till 1905, when he became professor of church history and sociology in Lincoln University, Pa. He has written the biography of his father, Walter Carter (New York, 1901), and two volumes of poems.
CARTER, THOMAS HENRY: United Brethren; b. in Carroll Co., Tenn., Jan. 1, 1851; entered the ministry, 1869; elected bishop, 1905.
CARTESIANISM. See Descartes, Rene. CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF.
I. Synods before and under Cyprian. II. Synods during the Donatist Controversy.
III. Synods in Connection with the Pelagian Controversy.
IV. Concluding Synods.
Carthage, the ancient rival of Rome, preserved a remnant of its former greatness in the commanding position assumed by its bishops, at least from the beginning of the third century, in the North- African Church. By right of their see, they were ex officio primates of their province, while this position in Numidia, and later in the other provinces of North Africa, went by seniority. But many bishops of these provinces paid great heed to the counsels of the bishop of the capital, at least in Cyprian's time, and even earlier than that had formed the habit of meeting there for conference. The decisions taken in regard to the controversies agitating the African Church, especially the Donatist and Pelagian, were of permanent and far-reaching importance for the development of theology.
I. Synods before and under Cyprian: (1) That under Bishop Agrippinus (c. 220), to whose decision Cyprian appealed in the controversy about baptism by heretics. (2) That held c. 240 at Lambese in Numidia (or Carthage), which condemned the heretic Privatus. (3) The first under Cyprian after his return to Carthage, just after Easter, 251. After a long debate, it decided that the lapsed, especially those who had offered sacrifice, should be restored only on an extended penance, except in danger of death, while the libellatici (see Lapsed) might, provisionally at least, be at once received. It seems to have been customary at this time to hold an annual Easter synod; and at least one
(4) is known in 252, to which probably the letter of Cyprian and sixty-six bishops to Fidus (Epist., lxiv.) refers; here Privatus attempted to have his case reopened, but was refused and joined the opposition that set up Fortunatus as a rival bishop.
(5) In 253, with reference to the new persecution |
under Gallus, the procedure in the case of the lapsed was modified, so that, if truly penitent, they might be at once restored (Epist. , 1 vii. ) . Subsequent synods dealt with baptism by heretics, concerning which the African bishops held strict views: (6) One attended by thirty-one bishops in 255 (Epist., lxx.). (7) A more general one, of seventy-one bishops, from Numidia as well, in the spring of 256 (Epist., lxxiii.). (8) One of eighty-seven bishops, this time including the Mauritanians, in September of the same year. The views expressed in the lastnamed were controverted by Augustine, De baptismo contra Donatistas, vi., vii.
II. Synods during the Donatist Controversy: (1) In 312, composed of seventy bishops, opponents of Csecilian, who was excommunicated. (2) One of 270 Donatist bishops, about 330, which showed a conciliatory spirit, and sanctioned the admission of traditores to communion. The succeeding synods for some time are all on the Catholic side, and show a more or less severe attitude toward the Donatists according to the position taken at the time by the schismatics. (3) The so-called " First Council of Carthage," between 345 and 348, attended by fifty bishops, at the close of a heavy persecution. This, like 8, 10, 11, 15, and 20, dealt only cursorily with the Donatist question, while 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 18, as far as we know, did not touch upon it at all. Under Bishop Genethlius of Carthage, who was much esteemed by the Donatists, took place (4) a synod in the " Praetorium," and a year later, or in 390, (5) the so-called " Second Council of Carthage," attended by sixty bishops. Under his successor, Aurelius, twenty synods are said to have been held, in the most important of which Augustine participated. In a general African council held at Hippo in 393 it was decided that the various provinces should take turns in holding such general gatherings; but this system was difficult of execution, since Mauritania and Tripolis were too distant, and the latter had only five episcopal sees. Among such general councils may be reckoned, besides that of Hippo which began the series, that of Hadrumetum, 394, those numbered here 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 15, and 20, and that of Mileve, 402. In 407 it was decided to abandon the attempt and call them when and where it seemed expedient, while the provincial synods were to go on as before. (6) and (7) Two synods held respectively on June 26, 394, and June 26, 397, of which little is known.
What is known as the Breviarium canonum Hipponensium corresponds substantially with (8) the Carthaginiense HI. of the Spanish collection, Aug. 28, 397. The canons of 393 and 397, confirmed at Mileve in 402, give a comprehensive view of the church life of the time. The most famous is that containing the list of Scriptural books, and dealing with the reading of the martyrologies. The position of the presbyters in relation to the bishops is restricted, aggressions by bishops on neighboring dioceses reprobated, and the whole conduct of the clergy within the bounds of the Church regulated. In regard to the Donatist matter, a change is made, allowing clerics coming from the schism to exercise their function, under
Carthage Carthusians