THE NEW SCIIAFF-HERZOG
2. Grandson of the preceding, professor of history in Zurich; b. at Zurich May 18, 1783; d. there May 17, 1860. He continued Johann von Midler's Geschichte der Eidgenossen wiihrend der Zeiten der Kirchentrennung (2 vols., Zurich, 1S25-29), and wrote a biography of Zwingli (1S42).
(Emil Egli.)
Bibliography: J. J. Lavater, Oratio inauguralis . vita J. J. Hottingeri, Zurich, 1736; ADB, xiii. 193-195.
HOUBIGANT, hu"bi"gan', CHARLES FRAN- COIS: French Biblical scholar; b. in Paris 1686; d. there Oct. 31, 1783. He entered the Congregation of the Oratory in 1704, and subsequently taught in the colleges of the order at Marseilles and Soissons. In 1722 he was called to Paris to conduct the conferences of St. Magloire. As a result of overwork in this position he became ill and almost totally deaf. He then devoted himself with remarkable energy to the study of Semitic languages, till a fall robbed him of his intellectual faculties toward the end of his long career. His principal works are: Racines Hebraiques (Paris, 1732); Prolegomena in Scripturam sacram (1746) ; and Biblia Hebraica cum criticis et versione Latino, (4 vols., 1753), of which the Latin version also appeared separately under the title Veteris Testamenti versio nova (5 vols., 1753). This work, which is printed without vowel-points, is based upon the text published in 1705 by Eberhard van der Hooght. The entire work was published at the expense of the Oratory.
Bibliography: Cadry, in Magasin encyclopedique, vol. iii., May, 1806; G. W. Meyer, Geschichte der Schrifterkliirung, iv. 154, 264-265, 5 vols., Gottingen, 1802-08; KL, vi. 314-315; Lichtenberger, ESR, vi. 386-388.
HOUGHTON, LOUISE SEYMOUR: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Piermont, N. Y., Nov. 22, 1838. She was educated privately and at Utica Female Seminary, Utica, N. Y., and in 1872-75 was in Europe, where she became interested in the McAll Mission (q.v.). Besides being connected with the English department of Vassar College in 1892-95, she was literary editor (1888-89), associate editor (1889-98), and editor-in-chief (1899-1902) of the New York Evangelist, and from 1902 to 1904 associate editor of the Christian Work and Evangelist. She was a charter member and first vice-president of the Jacob A. Riis Neighborhood Settlement from 1889 to 1904, and has been corresponding secretary of the New York auxiliary of the McAll Mission since 1888 and a director of the American McAll Association since 1896. In theology she belongs to the Broad Church. Among her numerous publications special mention may be made of the following: The Sabbath Month (Philadelphia, 1879) ; Life of David Livingstone (1881); The Bible in Picture and Story (New York, 1889); The Life of Christ in Picture and Story (1890); From Olivet to Patmos in Picture and Story (1891); Cruise of the "Mystery" in McAll Mission Work (1891); The Log of the " Lady Gray " (1896); Telling Bible Stories (1905); Hebrew Life and Thought (Chicago, 1906); and The Russian Grandmother's Wonder Tales (New York, 1906). She has also translated, among other works, Paul Sabatier's " St. Francis of Assisi " (New York, 1895); E. Stapfer's " Jesus Christ " (3 vols., 1896- 1898); and Au^uste Sabatier's " Religions of Authority and Religions of the Spirit " (1903).
HOURS, CANONICAL. See Breviary; Canonical Hours; and Vespers.
HOUSE, THE HEBREW, AND ITS APPOINT- MENTS: The limestone hills of Palestine abound in natural caves, which served the prim- Form, itive inhabitants as dwelling-places.
Material, By enlarging these caves and enclosing etc. them in front by a stone wall, a form of house was gradually evolved, standing partly free and partly hollowed out in the rock. Examples have been found in ancient Jerusalem on the slopes of the eastern hill. The Canaanites had regularly constructed houses, but caves long continued in use in certain portions of the land, as at Bait Jibrin and Derat (Edrei). Jerome affirms that the Idumeans dwelt in caves, because of the heat. In the Old Testament caves are mentioned as places of refuge in time of war and the like (Judges vi. 2, xv. 8 sqq.; I Sam. xiii. 6, xiv. 11). They were used also for cattle and as tombs. House architecture was influenced by the climate and the nature of the country. The former made necessary protection from the sun and rain, and also cool, cellar-like rooms; at the same time it permitted light and airy structures. Since the land did not afford abundance of timber, buildings were necessarily either of stone or brick; the former was used in the mountainous part of the country, where the easily worked limestone provided good building material, and the latter in the plains, where clay bricks were dried in the sun. In the excavations (at Taanach, for instance) it has been found that the simplest form of construction was with small stones set in clay, making so compact a mass that no single block can be detached from the ruins. Regularly formed clay bricks, measuring nineteen and a half by thirteen inches, or thirteen by thirteen, constituted an advance upon this primitive material in a second form of building. A third style of house was of small unhewn stones carefully fitted together. These houses were small, at most thirteen feet in width. In larger buildings it was customary to construct the lower courses of the wall with mediumsized unhewn stones and to finish with courses of brick, hewn stones being used only for temples and palaces (I Kings vii. 9 sqq.; Isa. ix. 10). Plastering with lime was known at an early period (Ezek. xiii. 10, etc.), though clay was the more usual material (Lev. xiv. 41). Foundation sacrifice (performed by immuring human beings in the foundations during construction) is proven by excavations to have been employed in Palestine and by the Israelites. I Kings xvi. 34 refers to this custom. Later the sacrifice was symbolical only, lamps and dishes being substituted for human beings. The so-called leprosy of houses (Lev. xiv. 33-57) has not been satisfacto v explained. Nitrous efflorescence has been thought of, and also fungus growths, such as appear on weather-beaten stones and walls.
The roofs of smaller buildings were made by laying poles across the walls and covering them with branches and brush, over which a thick layer of earth was trodden down and the whole then covered with another layer of clay and straw. In the case of stone buildin/rs arched roofs were in use