THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Innocent VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo): Pope 1484-92. He was born in Genoa in 1432, and was brought up at the court of Naples. He studied in Padua and Rome, where he won the favor of Cardinal Calandrini, and by his help was named bishop of Savona by Paul II. Sixtus IV transferred him to Molfetta and made him cardinal in 1473. His elevation to the papacy (Aug. 24, 1484) as the successor of Sixtus was owing to Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, the subsequent Pope Julius II., who dominated the first years of his reign, Innocent himself being a weak, characterless personality, and of notoriously immoral life. Quarrels with Naples induced the pope to seek intimate relations with the Medici at Florence, already risen to high power; his son, Franceschetto, married the daughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and, to seal the union of the two houses, Innocent paved the way to the college of cardinals for the second son of Lorenzo. He summoned Christendom to a crusade against the infidels; but at the same time he entered into agreement with Sultan Bajazet II. to keep his brother, Jem, safely in Rome for the sum of 40,000 ducats yearly, and in 1490 received the pay for three years.
In three bulls of 1486 Innocent declared Henry VII. Tudor the lawful and rightful king of England, and threatened the severest ecclesiastical penalties against all who did not recognize his claims. He also confirmed the election of Maximilian of Austria as king of the Romans, disregarding the protest of Charles VIII. of France. By the bull Summis desiderantes of Dec. 5, 1484, he gave the sanction of the Church to the prevalent trials for witchcraft (see Witchcraft). He strengthened the Inquisition in Spain by appointing Thomas of Torquemada inquisitor-general (see Inquisition), and he issued a bull directing all rulers outside of Spain to deliver up heretics to this zealous persecutor. He preached a crusade against the Waldenses in Piedmont; and he supplied fresh food for superstition in Rome and elsewhere by solemnly importing, in 1492, the " holy lance " with which Christ's side was said to have been pierced, sent to him by the Sultan Bajazet. Innocent died July 25, 1492. He neglected the government of the Papal States and punished robbers and rebels only when they were unable to pay. Everything at the Curia was for sale, and hundreds of new positions were created expressly to fill the papal coffers. Such is the dark background upon which the shining figure of Savonarola (q.v.) is projected. K. Benrath.
Bibliography: Sources for a history are in Muratori, Scriptores, Hi. 2, pp. 1070-1071, 1189-1190, xxiii. 87-88. The bull on witches, ed. W. Romer, appeared Schaffhausen, 1889, and is in Reich, Documents, 199-202, and that on the marriage of Henry VII. in the Camden Miscellany, vol. i., London, 1847. Consult : A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 1, pp. 187 sqq., Berlin, 1868; idem, Lorenzo de Medici, ii. 272 sqq., Leipsic, 1874; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vii. 268 sqq., Stuttgart, 1880; Hagen, Die Papstwahlen 1484-1493, Brixen, . 1885; Creighton, Papacy, iv. 135-180; Pastor, Popes, iv. 288, 410, 458, v. 227-372; Ranke, Popes, i. 33, 308; Bower, Popes, iii. 254-258; Mirbt, Quellen, n. 220.
Innocent IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetto): Pope 1591. He was born at Bologna July 22, 1519, and won the degree of doctor in law at his native
city in 1544. He then entered the service of Cardinal Farnese at Rome and was made bishop of Nicastro in Calabria by Pope Pius IV- In 1561 he was at the Council of Trent, in 1566 was sent as nuncio to Venice by Pius V. After the accession of Gregory XIII. (1572) he retired to his bishopric and governed it as a true shepherd of the fold. Gregory honored and trusted him, making him member of the Council and of the Inquisition, patriarch of Jerusalem, and (Dec. 12, 1583) cardinal priest. The Spanish party of the cardinals chose him, Oct. 29, 1591, to succeed Gregory XIV., and he at once arrayed himself on the side of Philip II. of Spain against Henry IV- of France. He was personally devout, took a zealous stand in favor of reform in the Church, and projected important and beneficial measures for improvement, but could do no more than outline his plans, since he died, Dec. 30, 1591, after a rule of only two months.
K. Benrath.
Bibliography: Cigarella, Vita Innocentis IX., in appendix to B. Sacchi de Platina, Historia . de vitis pontiflcum Romanorum, pp. 500-501, Cologne, 1626; Philippson, in Historische Zeiischrift, xxxix (1878), 447; M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, vol. i., Gotha, 1880; Ranke, Popes, ii. 38; Bower, Popes, p. 326.
Innocent X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili): Pope 1644-65. He was born at Rome 1574, and received preferment from Clement VIII. , Gregory XV., and Urban VIII. , the latter making him cardinal in 1629. He was chosen pope to succeed Urban, and occupied the see of Peter on Sept. 15, 1644. Pamfili had never concealed his sympathies for Spain, but was accepted by the French party as the most acceptable choice they were likely to get. The Barberini — relatives of the preceding pope — were deceived if they expected favor from Innocent. He started suits against them to recover moneys which they had misapplied and, when they fled from Rome, seized their property and palaces. At the same time he sought to advance his own family, and was completely under the influence of his brother's widow, Donna Olimpia (nee Maidalchina), who was allowed so free a hand with the public funds that nothing remained for public needs. The relations with the Barberini became more friendly when the French minister, Mazarin, espoused their cause and even sent French troops to Italy; their property and positions were then returned to them.
In the course of a dispute with the duke of Parma, Innocent captured the city of Castro, razed its fortifications, and took possession of the country. He also made a treaty with Venice by which he gained substantial concessions and himself merely promised — and later only half kept the promise — to contribute money for the war against the Turks. He showed himself ungrateful to Spain by encouraging a revolt in Naples; but his policy toward the newly founded kingdom of Portugal was dictated entirely by the Spanish ambassador in Rome. As a consequence the bishoprics in Portugal long remained vacant. The Peace of Westphalia was concluded in 1648 regardless of the protests of Innocent's nuncio, Chigi, and of the bull Zelo domus dei, which he issued against it Nov. 26, 1648 (cf. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 294-295; see Westphalia, Peace of). The most important and momentous decision