RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
John III-XH
thus bid farewell to any hope of realizing his Italian plans. In the controversy between Methodius and the Bavarian episcopate, he took the side of the former, although in 879 he summoned him to Rome to answer a charge of heresy. But John's attempts to please both parties sowed the seeds of future discord in the young Moravian church. He carried on his predecessors' policy more consistently in the Bulgarian question, but gained nothing except vague promises, while the Greek clergy and liturgy remained in possession. This question had troubled the relations of Rome with Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople. After his death in 877, Photius (who had been deposed by the fourth council of Constantinople in 869) was reinstated. In 879, in order to win the Emperor Basil's support against the Saracens, John expressed his readiness to recognize him on certain conditions, and though Photius grossly falsified the terms when he recited them in the council of 879, John disavowed the action of his protesting legates and still sought for union. The assertion of later historians that he reversed this policy before his death (Dec. 15, 882) and once more deposed Photius finds no support in his letters.
(H. Boehmer.) Bibliography: The letters of this pope may be found in Mansi, Concilia, xvii. 1 sqq.; S. Lowenfeld, Epistolae Romanorum pontiflcum ineditae, pp. 24-34, Leipsic, 1885; and JarK, Regesta, i. 376-422. consult: Hincmar, Annates, ed. G. H. Pertz, in MGH, Script., i (1826), 495 sqq.; Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 121-122, Paris, 1892; Mann, Popes, iii. 231-353; J. Hergenrother, Photius, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1867-69; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectae, iii. 419-435, Regensburg, 1882; A. Gasquet, L'Empire byzantin et la monarchic franque, pp. 432-482, Paris, 1888; J. Langen, Geschichte der rbmischen Kirche, iii. 170-275, Bonn, 1892; A. Lap&tre, L'Europe et le Saint-Siege a Vepoque carolingienne, vol. i., Paris, 1895 (Ultramontane); F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii. 171-203, London, 1895; Hauck, KD, ii. 558 sqq., 702 sqq.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv. 447 sqq., 514 sqq.; Bower, Popes, 283-292; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 37, 81-100; B. Platina, Lives of the Popes, i. 232-233, London, n.d.
John IX. : Pope 898-900. He was a Benedictine, and was elevated to the papacy after the expulsion of Sergius III. At a synod in St. Peter's he reversed the proceedings of the synod of Stephen VI. (q.v.) which had condemned Formosus (q.v.), and reaffirmed the validity of the orders conferred by the latter. He revised the provisions for papal elections, recognized Lambert of Spoleto as emperor, and declared the coronation of Arnulf null and void. At first he confirmed the decrees of his predecessors in regard to Photius, but just before his death he seems to have succeeded in reaching some understanding with the Greeks at a synod.
(H. Boehmer.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalia, ed. Duchesne, ii. 232, Paris, 1892; J. M. Watterieh, Romanorum pontiflcum vitae, i. 656 sqq., Leipsic, 1862; Jaffe\ Regesta, i. 442-443; J. Langen, Geschichte der rbmischen Kirche, iii. 307-311, Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii. 231-238, London, 1895; Mann, Popes, iii. 245, 370, 384, 394; Bower, Popes, ii. 302-304; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 112; B. Platina, Lives of the Popes, i. 240-241, London, n.d.
John X. : Pope 914-928. He is said to have been born at Toffignano in Romagna, to have been first a deacon in Bologna, and then to have risen to the bishopric of that see, which he immediately exchanged in some uncanonical manner for that of Ravenna, whence he was called, again uncanoni-
cally, by the primates of Rome — meaning notably Theodora, to whom he seems to have been related — to the papacy about March, 914. He displayed some zeal and ability in ecclesiastical affairs, maintaining close relations with Germany and France; the instructions sent to the archbishop of Reims for dealing with the newly converted Normans are notable. He was, however, more important as a politician and military commander, succeeding in uniting the principal Italian princes and the eastern emperor against the Saracens, and personally winning a brilliant victory over them on the lower Garigliano in August, 916. But the league soon fell a prey to the spirit of faction, the Emperor Berengar was murdered at Ravenna in 924, and John had a powerful foe in Rome in the person of the intriguing Marozia. In June, 928, his brother Peter, prefect of the city, was murdered and he himself was thrown into prison, where he soon died.
(H. Boehmer.)
Bibliography: Sources are: Liudprand, Antapodosis, ed. E. Dummler, pp. 44-47, 61, 73, Hanover, 1877; Benedictus, Chronicon, ed. G. Waitz, in MGH, Script, xiii (1881), 714-715. Consult further: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 240-241, Paris, 1892; Jafte, Regesta, i. 447-453; J. M. Watterieh, Romanorum pontiflcum vitae, i. 35-36, 661 sqq., Leipsic, 1862; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectae, iv. 46-62, Regensburg, 1884; J. Langen, Geschichte der rbmischen Kirche, iii. 319-328, Bonn, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii. 249-279, London, 1895; Bower, Popes, ii. 308-311; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 160-166; B. Platina, Lives of the Popes, i. 245- 247, London, n.d.
John XL: Pope 931-936. A natural son of Sergius III. by Marozia, he was elevated to the papacy about 931 by his mother's influence, and was involved in her fall when his half-brother Alberic gained power a year later. It is not known whether he ever regained his freedom, but it was undoubtedly Alberic who decided all the more important acts of jurisdiction. John died in January, 936. (H. Boehmer.)
Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 243, Paris, 1892; Jaffe\ Regesta, i. 454-455; J. M. Watterieh, Romanorum pontiflcum vitae, i. 38, 669 sqq., Leipsic, 1862; J. Langen, Geschichte der rbmischen Kirche, iii. 329-331, Bonn, 1892; Gregorovius, Hist, of the City of Rome, iii. 283-305, London, 1895; Bower, Popes, ii. 311-312; B. Platina, Lives of the Popes, i. 248-249, London, n.d.
John XII. (Octavian): Pope 955-964. He was the illegitimate son of Alberic, and was elected Dec. 16, 955. The most shocking moral scandals were rife; but with all his vices he combined the soaring ambition of his house. First he tried to extend his power in the south, and then to deal with King Berengar, both without success. Berengar's son Adalbert was occupying Roman territory when John decided to appeal to Otto I., possibly under pressure from the reforming party among the Roman clergy. After exacting guaranties for his own position, he admitted Otto into the city and crowned him emperor (Feb. 2, 962); but hardly had Otto left Rome when John entered into relations with Adalbert and attempted to do so with the Byzantine empire. Becoming aware of his treachery, Otto marched back to Rome. John and Adalbert fled to Tivoli. A synod met in St. Peter's under the emperor's presidency, which after nearly a month's debate declared John guilty
John XIII-XXII