RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Pascal Paschal
litteraires, Paris, 1887; P. Brunetiere, Etudes critiques sur . . . la litterature francaise, vols, i., iii., iv., Paris, lgg7-91; M. Nourisson, Pascal, physicien et philosophe, Paris, 1885; idem. Defense de Pascal, ib. 1888; J. Zettel, Sur le pascalisme, Paris, 1889; J. Bertrand, Blaise Pascal, Paris, 1890; D. Nasmith, Makers of Modern Thought, 2 vols., London, 1892; J. Owen, The Skeptics of the French Renaissance, pp. 731-808, London, 1893; V. Giraud, Pascal, Paris, 1900; A. Hatzfeld, Pascal, Paris, 1901; K. Warmuth, Das religibs-ethische Ideal Pascals, Leipsic, 1901; idem, Wissen und Glauben bei Pascal, Berlin, 1902 (of high value) ; W. R. Clarke, Pascal and the Port Royalists, Edinburgh and New York, 1902; A. Vinet, Etudes sur Blaise Pascal, Paris, 1904; E. Janssens, La Philosophic et Vapologetique de Pascal, Paris, 1906; W. J. Williams, Newman, Pascal, Loisy and the Catholic Church, London, 1906; K. Bornhausen, Die Ethik Pascals, Giessen, 1907; J. Gamble, Study on Pascal, London, 1907; A. Koster, Die Ethik Pascals, Tubingen, 1907: F. Strowski, Pascal et son temps, 2 parts, Paris, 1907; J. T. Burens, De Casuistik en Pascal, Utrecht, 1909; Viscount St. Cyres, Pascal. With Portrait, Index, Bibliography, and comparative Table, New York, 1910; H. R. Jordan, Blaise Pascal: a Study in Religious Psychology, London, 1910; V. Girard, Blaise Pascal. Etudes d'hist. morale, Paris, 1910. The reader should consult also the literature under Port-Royal; and works on modern philosophy and on the literary history of France.
PASCHAL: The name of two popes and one antipope.
Paschal I.: Pope 817-824. He was a Roman by birth, early entered the clerical state and was attached to the Lateran basilica, where he became deacon and priest, and under Leo III. was placed in charge of the monastery of St. Stephen Major and hospice for pilgrims near St. Peter's. On the death of Stephen IV., he was elected the same day and consecrated the next (Jan. 25, 26, 817), apparently to avoid the interference of the Frankish court. The Emperor Louis, however, made no objection, and renewed the agreement which had been in force under his predecessors. The document purporting to contain this agreement, the socalled Pactum Ludovicianum, for which the oldest witnesses are Anselm of Lucca and Deusdedit (qq.v.), has called forth much controversy. It is now usually considered to be not forged but merely interpolated, although scholars disagree as to the extent of the interpolations. In any case the relations between Paschal and the emperor were at first friendly. In the spring of 823 the young Lothair went to Rome, where Paschal crowned him (Apr. 5). In missionary work pope and emperor acted in unison; the former named the latter's foster-brother Ebo of Reims his vicar for the still heathen lands of the north. The recrudescence of the iconoclastic controversy afforded Paschal an opportunity for fresh intervention in eastern affairs as the upholder of orthodoxy. Leo the Armenian paid no heed to the representations of the Roman legates; but Paschal had the satisfaction of being recognized by the defenders of images as the head of the Church. The Liber pontificalis calls him a mild and benevolent ruler; the Frankish historians depict him rather as haughty and domineering. He was a devoted supporter of monasticism, and a zealous promoter of the cultus of the saints and their relics (see Cecilia, Saint), to which qualities he probably owes his own canonization. His festival is May 14. (H. Bohmer.)
Bibliography: The Epistola et diplomata are in MPL,
cxxix.; and the Pactum Ludovicianum in T. Sickel, Das
Pnvilegium Ottos I., pp. 173 sqq., Innsbruck, 1883. Sources are: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 52- 68, Paris, 1892; Einhard, Annates, in MGH, Script., i (1826), 135-218; Theganus, Vita Hludowici, in MGH Script., ii (1829), 604-648; Jaffe, Regesta, i. 318-32o! Consult: Mann, Popes, ii. 122-155; B. Niehues, Verhaltnis von Kaisertum und Papsttum, ii. 69 sqq., Minister, 1863; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Papste, i. 329 sqq., Elberfeld, 1868; J. Langen, Geschichte der rbmischen Kirche, ii. 800 sqq., Bonn, 1885; M. Heimbucher, Die Papstwahlen unter den Karolingern, pp. 116 sqq., Augsburg, 1889; F. Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome, iii. 35-55, London, 1895; T. Lindner, Die sogenannten Schenkungen Pippins, . . an die romische Kirche, pp. 60 sqq., Stuttgart, 1896; Hauck, KD, ii. 481 sqq.; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 519-529; Bower, Popes, ii. 193-201; Platina, Popes, i. 210-212.
Paschal II. (Rainerius): Pope 1099-1118. He came from Galliata, near Ravenna, and entered the
cloister in his boyhood; when at the
Opening age of twenty years he went to Rome
Promise of on business for his cloister, he was de-
His tained there by Gregory VII., and sta-
Pontificate. tioned as presbyter at St. Clement's.
He was elected successor of Urban II. on Aug. 13, 1099, and the next day was consecrated. Many burdensome tasks awaited solution at the hand of the new pope. Accordingly, it was fortunate that Guibert of Ravenna (q.v.), whom Henry IV had put forward as antipope, was now expelled from Rome. [But Paschal's troubles were not ended with the expulsion of Guibert, nor even with his death. On the latter event the friends of Guibert elected Albert pope, but he was taken prisoner the same day and confined in the monastery of St. Laurence. The opposing party was undeterred, however, and chose Theodoric, who was captured after 105 days and shut up in the monastery of Cava, near Palestrina. The final effort of the Guibertians was the election of Magninulph, who took the title of Silvester IV., but was forced to flee from Rome, and died soon after.] The German situation at Paschal's pontifical accession stood favorable in that a weariness of conflict had set in, affecting even Henry IV. Hardly had the emperor learned of the death of Clement III. before he summoned the princes, at Christmas of 1100, to a conference at Mainz for the restoration of ecclesiastical peace. They advised the despatch of envoys to Rome, and Henry was ready to attend a council to be convoked at Rome in Feb., 1102. Paschal, however, from the outset was determined to continue the contest. He appealed to Count Robert of Flanders to engage in holy war against Henry, attempted to revive martial ardor in Swabia and Bavaria, and at the synod of Mar., 1102, proclaimed the anathema perpetuum against Henry. But the need of peace was universal, and the appeal to Robert of Flanders procured for the pope a sharp rebuff. At the outset, the bearing of Henry V satisfied all expectations and hopes on the pope's part: Henry was humble in bearing, and by removing the schismatic bishops, and thus restoring to Germany her long-crippled freedom, he appeared to furnish proof of his sincerity. The emperor, who had ceased to stem the tumultuous vicissitudes of the last years of his life, died on Aug. 7, 1106; and with him, as it seemed from the papal standpoint, the chief enemy to the
Paschal