THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
Schaff, Christian Church, i. 109-111, 299, 335, 465, 661, 677, 6S0. On the date of the martyrdom consult: R. A. Lipsius, in JPT, 1878, pp. 751-768; K. Wieseler, Christenoerfolgungen, pp. 34-87, Giitersloh, 1878; idem, in TSK, liii (1880), 141-165; T. Randell, in Studia Biblica, pp. 175-207, Oxford, 1885; W. M. Ramsay in Expository Times, Jan., 1907, pp. 188-189.
POLYCHROME BIBLE. See Bible Text, I., 3,
POLYCHRONIUS: Bishop of Apamea; flourished in the first half of the fifth century. Of his life nothing is known except that he was the brother of Theodore of Mopsuestia (q.v.), that he was bishop after 428, and that he was one of the most distinguished exegetes of the Antiochian school. Though never expressly anathematized, Polychronius was regarded as a heretic in later times, so of his exegetical works only fragments have been preserved in various catenas. It may be regarded as certain that Polychronius wrote exhaustive commentaries on Job, Daniel, and EzeMel. The greater part of the fragments preserved are from Daniel, which he interpreted as referring to Antiochus Epiphanes instead of Antichrist, and saw in the fourth monarchy of the world the Macedonian empire, and in the ten heads the Diadochi. He sought always to establish the historical meaning and polemized against allegorical exegesis, as well as against the theory of a twofold sense. As a critic, however, he seems to have been more conservative than his brother. His knowledge of philology, antiquities, and history was considerable, but he shows a comparatively slight acquaintance with the Semitic languages. His Christology was apparently that of bis brother, though probably less pronounced.
(A. Habnack.) Bibliography: Theodoret, Hist, eccl., v. 39, Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., iii. 159; O. Bardenhewer, Polychronius Bruder Theodors, Freiburg, 1879; Fabrieius-Harles, Bibliotheca Grwca, viii. 638-669, x. 362-363, Hamburg, 1802- 1807; DNB, iv. 434-436; Ceillier, Auteurs sacres, x. 60.
POLYCRATES, pe-lic'ra-tiz : Bishop of Ephesus; flourished in the second century. He is known only bration of Easter (about 190) [to whom he wrote a letter, given in Eusebius, Hist, eccl., V., xxiv., Eng. transl. in NPNF, 2 ser., i. 242-244]. The controversy, according to Eusebius, took place under Commodus (d. Dec. 31, 192), and to Maximin of Antioch (whom Serapion succeeded in 190-191) letters are said to have been directed. At this time he had been a Christian sixty-five years, coming of a Christian family which had already furnished seven bishops. Motor had requested him to call a synod to decide the Easter problem (see Easter) ; but this synod, led by Polycrates appealing to the usage of Asia Minor, decided in favor of Nisan 14th, whereupon the pope made an unsuccessful attempt to excommunicate the church of Asia Minor.
(N. Bonwetsch.) Bibliography: Eusebius, Hist, eccl., V., xxii., xxiv., Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., i. 240-244 (of. note 9 on V. xxii.); Harnack, Litteratur, i. 260, ii. 1, p. 323; T. Zahn, Forschungen zur Geschichte der neutestamentlichen Kanons, iii. 187, vi. 162-163, 169 sqq., 208 sqq., Leipsic, 1890- 1900, O. Bardenhewer, Geschichte der altkirchlichen Litteratur, i. 580, Freiburg, 1902; DNB, iv. 436-437; Ceillier, Auteurs sacres, i. 535, ii. 542-543.
POLYGLOT BIBLES. See Bibles, Polyglot.
POLYTHEISM.
I. Scope and Definition. Animism (§ 2).
Meaning in Scripture (§ 1). Sabaism (§ 3).
Lapse from Monotheism III. Development.
(§2). A Corruption of Mono-
II. Classification. theism (§ 1).
Fetishism (§ 1). IV. Ethical Estimation.
1. Scope and Definition: Polytheism or the doctrine and belief that there are more gods than one is the more scientific term for what is otherwise known as idolatry and heathenism, and refers to those religions which are in contradistinction to the monotheism of Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammedanism. It is based on the natural
i. Mean- tendency of man to seek religious relaing in tions with deity in the light of the Scripture, revelation of natural religion alone. In the evolutionary process nature proceeds from plurality to unity, and even pantheism appears as a philosophical elaboration and inspiration of primitive polytheism. The verdict of both the Old and the New Testament on the nature and value of polytheism is essentially the same. Polytheism is the lapse from the living God to the worship of vain idols and the perversion of divinely revealed truth in order to smuggle in falsehood, darkness of spirit, and association with demons. The gods of the heathen are powerless (Jer. ii. 28; Isa. xli. 29, xlii. 17, xlvi. 1 sqq.), and made by man from perishable material (especially Isa. xli., xliv. ; Ps. cxv. 4 sqq., cxxxv. 15-18). So far as they really exist, they are demons (Deut. xxxii. 17; cf. Deut. x. 17, xxxii. 17; Ps. xcvi. 15, cvi. 27). In the New Testament idols are vain, and are not really gods (Acts xiv. 15, xix. 26; I Cor. viii. 5; Gal. iv. 8), and he who eats of their offerings eats the meat of demons (I Cor. x. 19-21; Rev. ix. 20).
In considering the origin of polytheism, the usual development of pantheism from an earlier polytheism, illustrated in India by Brahmanism and in Greece by the Eleatic and Stoic systems, would naturally lead one to consider the primitive form of all religion to consist in the worship of a plurality of gods from which even Biblical
2. Lapse monotheism was developed. Neverfrom theless, neither the Pentateuch nor the
Monothe- prophetic writings contain any traces ism. whatsoever of an earlier polytheism, and the Old Testament very definitely regards the polytheism of the heathen as caused by a fall from primitive monotheism in the account of the tower of Babel (Gen. xi. 1 sqq.). The gradual development of polytheism from an original monotheism is supported by the history of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 18-20; Josh. xxiv. 2 sqq.); of Jacob, who saw the introduction of Teraphim (q.v.) into his household (Gen. xxxi. 19-20, xxxv. 2-3); of Joseph, who married the daughter of an Egyptian priest of the sun (Gen. xli. 50), and of Moses who was able to keep his people true to the God of the covenant only by bitter struggle against the paganism of Egypt and Midian (cf. Num. xii. 1 sqq.; Deut. xxxii. 15 sqq.; Amos v. 25-26). Similar views are presented in the New Testament, as in Rom. i. 21 sqq.; Acts xiv. 16, xvii. 29.