RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Polytheism Pomerius
took the same course or passed through the same phases. In like manner, various motives entered into the creation of early myths; and neither the one-sided interpretation of myths as personifications of meteorological phenomena nor the onesided anthropology of the euhemerists nor the operation of diabolical forces as held by early orthodoxy is in accord with the actual state of affairs.
IV. Ethical Estimation: Regarding the relation of polytheism to morality, the stern judgment must hold which the Old and the New Testament alike pronounce upon idolatry without distinction of its various forms or grades. Idolaters are evildoers punished by the law with the severest penalties, and upbraided by the prophets for their enormities. In the New Testament sinners and heathen are parallel (Matt, xviii. 17; Gal. ii. 15; I Cor. v. 1), while idolatry is classed among the " works of the flesh," being placed between lasciviousness and sorcery (Gal. v. 20), and repeatedly designated as belonging to the worst abominations (Romans ii. 22; Rev. ii. 15, 20, ix. 21, xvii. 4-5, xviii. 22) and as leading to the gravest sensuality (Rom. i. 24-28). And this judgment not only holds true of classical antiquity, but of modern primitive peoples as well.
(O. ZoCKLEEf.)
The conclusions reached by the author of the preceding article are not those of the modern school of comparative religionists. Every line of evidence exhaustively examined by these students leads to results that are in complete accord with the science of anthropology, which regards man himself as a development. Religion appears distinctly and unmistakably as a growth, in which monotheism is the choicest fruit, not the root. Wherever the history of religion can be traced for long periods, as in Babylonia and China, and now in Greece, the farther back one searches the more diffused is the worship, until the gods are lost in spirits or demons. This is confirmed by the study of primitive religion, where the objects of worship are spirits, not gods, with rare exceptions, and these exceptions afford no support to the theory of monotheism as original. Similarly in the organized religions, the irrational and animistic elements, for instance of ritual (in which are always preserved longest the traces of origin), are clearly derivable from the earlier stages and point to polytheism or animism, never to monotheism. While there may be reversion of a people from monotheism to polytheism (as in the decadent period of Jewish history), the case can always be shown to be reversion and not degeneration. The background of Hebrew religion is now recognized by the entire critical school as not only polytheistic but animistic. A case of this is the action of Jacob in anointing the stone (an act of worship) on which he slept while he saw his vision (Gen. xxviii. 18), which action was precisely that which Arab tribes directed to the stone deities which they worshiped (Smith, Ret. of Sem., passim). The first commandment is an explicit recognition of the existence of other deities.
The conclusions of comparative religionists as to the order of development in religion are briefly indicated in Comparative Religion (q.v., especially VI., 2, d). Geo. W. Gilmore.
Bibliography: Much of the best literature is named in the text, and many of the works given under Comparative Religion and Fetishism are of first importance; use also the literature under separate lands, as Africa, China, Japan, etc. Consult further: A. Wuttke, Geschichte des Heidentums, 2 vols., Breslau, 1852-53; K. Werner, Die Religionen und Kultur des vorchristlichen Heidentums, Schaffhausen, 1871; E. L. Fischer, Heidentum und Offenbarung, Mainz, 1878; J. Legge, Religions of China, London, 1881; E. G. Steude, Ein Problem der allgemeinen Religionswissenschaft, Leipsic, 1881; G. Rawlinson, The Religions of the Ancient World, London, 1882; C. F. Heman, Der Ursprung der Religion, Basel, 1886; W. Schneider, Die Naturviilker, 3 vols., Munster, 1885-91; idem, Geschichte der Religion im Altertum, 2 parts, Gotha, 1895-98; K. von Orelli, Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte, Bonn, 1899; G. Stosch, Das Heidentum als religiiises Problem, Gutersloh, 1903; W. Mundt, V olkerpsychologie, Leipsic, 1904 sqq.; W. Bousset, What is Religion? New York, 1907; A. Bros, La Religion des peuples non civilises, Paris, 1907; F. X. Kortleitner, De polytheismo universe et quibusdam eius formis apud Hebrceos finitimasque gentes usitatis, Innsbruck, 1908; G. Foucart, La Methode comparative dans Vhistoire des religions, Paris, 1909; L. Frobenius, The Childhood of Man, London, 1909; A. Le Roy, La Religion des primitifs, Paris, 1909; J. H. Leuba, Psychological Origin and Nature of Religion, London, 1909; S. Reinach, Orpheus. Hist, generate des religions, Paris, 1909, Eng. transl., Orpheus, London, 1909; W. St. C. Tisdall, Mythic Christs and the True: a Criticism of some modern Theories, London, 1909; H. G. Underwood, Religions of Eastern Asia, New York, 1910.
POMERIUS, JULIANUS: Gallican presbyter of Moorish descent; d. about 490. He is said by Cyprian to have been the teacher of famous Cffisarius of Aries (q.v.), and according to the spurious addition to Gennadius' De vir. ill. (xcviii.) and Isidore's De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis (xv.), he wrote a dialogue De animce natura (or De natura animce et qualitate ejus) in eight books and a treatise De vita contemplativa (or De contemptu mundi) in three books. The first book of the latter work (MPL, lix. 415-520) treats of the value of the contemplative life, the second of the active life of the Christian, and the third of vices and virtues. The entire works are full of the spirit of Augustine. The similarity of the latter treatise to the eschatological meditations of St. Julian, bishop of Toledo, early led to Julian's identification with Pomerius, who flourished fully two centuries before him. Julian, a convert from Judaism, was archbishop from Jan. 29, 680, to Mar. 8, 690, and was zealous in defending and extending the faith and reformation of the clergy, at the same time maintaining a firm attitude toward Benedict II. when the pope criticized his creed. His apology addressed to Benedict, together with some of his other works, has been lost; but his Prognosticorum futuri seculi libri tres (Leipsic, 1535) ; De demonstratione sextce cetatis (Heidelberg, 1532); and Historia Wambce regis Toletani (MPL, xcvi.) are extant. He probably took part in the final redaction of the old Spanish liturgy and of the Visigothic canon law. (O. ZocKLERf.)
Bibliography: Histoire litteraire de la France, ii. 665—675; J. Nirschl, Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristik, iii. 285 sqq., Mainz, 1881; F. Arnold, Casarius von Arelate, pp. 80-84, 124-129, Leipsic, 1894; O. Bardenhewer, Patrologie, p. 540, Freiburg, 1901, Eng. transl., St. Louis, 1908; O. Zockler, Die Tugendlehre des Christentums, pp. 93-95, Gutersloh, 1904.
On Julian of Toledo consult: Patrum Toletanorum . Opera, ed. F. Lorenzano, pp. 3-385, Madrid, 1785; J. de Mariana, Historian de rebus Hispaniw, vi. 248-249, Mainz, 1605, Eng. transl., The General Hist, of Spain, 2 parts, London, 1699; P. B. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien,
Ponce de Leon Poor Men. of Lyons