2. Roman scourging. — (a) Roman scourging is distinguished from Jewish in 2 Co II-'"- by the fact that the former was inllicted with rods (ipafsSladi]!'). St. Paul suffered this mode of punishment on three occasions. Only one of these inflictions, that shared by Silas, is recorded in the Acts (16--). In carrying out the orders of the Roman magis- trates, the lictors would seem to have e.\ecuted their task with merciless rigour (v.'^). According to the Porcian Law (300 B.C.), scourging was for- bidden in the case of Roman citizens, this particular penalty being reserved for slaves and foreigners ; and to make matters worse, the magistrates acted also ultra vires by failing to investigate the case fully (v.^'). (6) In the ab.sence of lictors, tlie flagellation was inflicted with a different instru- ment, consisting of a ' knout ' or ' cat ' with ' lashes of knotted cord, or even wire, which might be loaded with knuckle bones or other cruel aggrava- tions.' This dreadful weapon was sometimes employed for extorting confession from persons accused of crime. The cliiliarch who had St. Paul under arrest ordered the whip (/udo-nf) to be used for this purpose. Arrangements for subject- ing the Apo.stle to the terrible ordeal had been completed by the centurion, but he escaped it by a successful assertion of his rights as a Roman citizen (22='-»).
3. Among the heroes of faith mentioned in He 11 some had trial of scourgings (v.'^), the reference
being to tortures inflicted by Jewish or heathen persecutors (2 Mac 7')-
Literati-re. — For mode of scourging and other details, Bee artt. ' Klagruin ' in Smith's DGliA'<, London, 11)01, '.Scourire' in UDB and TJCij, 'Stripes' in J K ; F. W. Farrar, The Li/e and Work of St. Paul, do., 1897, pp. 716-717 ; T. Keim, UUtory of Jesus of Sazareth, Eng. tr., 6 vols., do., 1873-83,
^'- 118'- W. S. Montgomery.
SCRIBE. — Judaism was a religious system which regulated the lives of its adherents in the minutest particulars. The necessary regulations were con- tained partly in a written Law, partly in a mass of oral tradition and authoritative precedents. Hence a class was needful who should make it their business to preserve and expound these. This class was the scribes.
1. Functions. — (a) Their primary function has just been indicated. It involved the making of accurate copies of the Scriptures, and the laborious memorizing of tradition. (6) In the synagogue a scribe acted as the expounder of Scripture to the people, (c) The scribe was a lawyer who had to decide all legal disputes, [d) To meet new cases for which there was no regulation written or oral, and no precedent to guide, he had to determine what the law should be. Hence the mass of traditions and precedents assumed overwhelming proportions, (e) The education of the young in schools was the charge of the scribe. As the Law was regulative of all human activities, tlie know- ledge of the scribe was encyclopaidic. In his person were combined the offices now distrilmted among clergymen, doctors, lawyers, and teachers.
2. Training.— The period of training for such a profession was naturally long. When it was finished and he had been called to a particular post, the scribe was ordained, and received the title Rabbi (see Doctor).
3. Schools. — Scribes were divided into various schools. While doubtless the majority were Phari.sees, the Sadducees had their scribes also (implied in Ac 23"). Further, the Pharisee scribes were divided into two great schools, tlie followers of Hillel and of Shammai. It was only on points of detail, and on no fundamental principle, that they divided. On the whole, the school of Shammai was the more rigid.
i. Influence. — The influence of the scribes was naturally veiy great, and they were highly esteemed. After the fall of Jerusalem, they became more important than ever. Temple and priesthood disappeared. The synagogue became the sole centre of Jewish religious and national life, and the scribe the most important official (see under Pharisees).
S. Relation to the early Church.— In the early history of Christianity we have only three refer- ences to the scribes. (1) Gamaliel, a scribe and the teacher of St. Paul (Ac 22^), on the occasion of the trial of St. Peter and his associates counselled toleration, and his advice was accepted (o^'"'-). (2) When St. Paul was on his trial, the Pharisaic scribes re])eated Gamaliel's advice (23'). (3) On the other hand, 6'- mentions scribes among those who proceeded against Stephen. Probably we should regard them as Sadducees. But in nearly all cases of Jews rising against Christians, especially out- side Jerusalem, we may be sure that the scribes, the recognized leaders of the people, were the instigators.
LiTERiTt'RE.— Artt. 'Scribe' in HDB, DCG, EBi, JE; E. Schiirer, HJP n. i. (Edinburgh, 1886) 312 ff. ; W. Bousset, Die Reliqion des Judenluuu irn neutest. Zeitalter, Berlin, 1903, p. 139 IT. ; W. O. E. Oesterley, The Books of the Apocrypha. their Origin, Teaching and Contents, London, 1914, p. 113 ff.
W. D. NiVEN.
SCRIPTURE.— 1. Terms.— The general designa- tion for 'Scripture' is ypa(pri or plur. yparpal, the
SCRIPTURE
SCKIITURK
4G1
former occurring some 30 times in the NT (Gosiiels 14, Alts 3, Paul 9, Catholic Epistles 5), the latter about '20 times (Gospels 10, Acts 4, Paul 'i, Catholic Epistles 2). The terms are almost invariahly pre- ceded Ijy the definite artiile, the only exceptions being in Jn 19'', 2 Ti 3'«, wliere tlie article t.efore 7pa0>; is replaced by ir^pa and TrSira respectively, 1 P 2'', 2 P 1'-", where ypaiji-fi liius become a real proper name, and Ro 1- 16'-'*, where the Scriptures are more explicitly characterized as ypaipal ^7101 and ■ypa<pai TrpotpijrtKal, ' holy Scriptures' and ' pro- plietic Scriptures.' In one text, 2 Ti 3", another designation is used, viz. lepd ypdnfMra., 'sacred writings' (a direct translation of the Hebrew phrase s'lpn "sri?), which we lind also in Philo and Josephiis.