?-- -TIT V-»
verbs whose second and third radicals are alike =^ym doubled. The third book is called ^^1;^^ ^BQ, and treats of the vowel points and accents. Originally writ- ten in Arabic, these marvellous grammatical discover- ies were at first inaccessible and unknown to the Ger- mano-French interpreters ; but they exercised so ex- traordinary an influence upon the Spanish school of interpreters, that in order to make them more general- ly useful they were translated into Hebrew by Aben- Ezra. They have been published by Leop. Dukes (Frankft. a. M. 1844, 8vo), who has also given a sketch of the life and linguistic discoveries of Chajug in his Literaturhistorische MUtheUmgen, etc (Stuttg. 1844). — Kitto, s. V. ; Ftirst, Bib. Jud. i, 160.
Chalamiflh (123*^iO^)rp, a place in Palestine men- tioned by the Talmudists {Echa Rabbati, i, 17) as be- ing near Naveh (Reland, Palcest. p. 702) ; thought by Schwarz (Palest, p. 286) to be the same with the mod- em Sunamein. See ^re.
Chalcedon, a city of Bithynia. It was the seat of one of the so-called General Councils o/the Church, held A.D. 451 (the fourth oecumenical council), which was called by the emperor Marcianus, at the request of the bishops (especially of Leo I), to put down the Eutychian and Nestorian heresies. The emperor had first summoned the bishops to meet at Nicasa, but when the time approached he was prevented by political troubles from going so far from the imperial city, and therefore changed the place of meeting to Chalcedon, in Bithynia, on the Bosphoras, opposite Constantino- ple. The Council was attended by 680 bishops and deputies^ all Eastern except four legates sent by Leo I from Iftme. The sessions began Oct. 8, 451, and end- ed Oct. 81. As the two parties in the Council were roused to the highest pitch of passion, the proceed- ings, especially daring the early sessions, were very tumultuous, until the lay commissioners and senators had to urge the bishops to keep order, saying that such Ufiofjmis drjfWTiKai (vulgar outcries) were disgraceful. (See the account from l^fansi, cited by Stanley, Eastern Church, lect. ii, p. 165.)
At the first session (October 8, 461) the Council as- sembled in the Church of St.Euphemia; in the cen- tre sat the officers of the emperor ; at their left, or on the epistle side, sat the bishops of Constantinople, An- tioch, Caesarea in Cappadocia, and of the other Eastern dioceses, and Pontus, Asia, and Thrace, together with the four legates ; on the other side were Dioscurus, Juvenal, Thalassius of CsBsarea, and the other bishops of Egypt, Palestine, and Illyria, most of whom had been present in the pseudo-council of Ephesus. In the midst were the Holy Gospels, placed upon a raised sea#. When they had taken their seats, the legates of the pope demanded that Dioscurus should withdraw from the assembly, accnsinghim of his scandalous con- dact at Ephesus, and declaring that otherwise they would depart. Then the imperial officers ordered him
CHALCEDON
106
CILVLCIS
to withdraw from the Cooncil, mnd to take his seat among the accused. The acts of the so-called ** Rob- ber CouDcir* of Ephesus (q. v.) were discussed and condemned, and Dioscums was left with only twelve bishops to stand by him. The Eutychian heresy, that in our Lord were two natures before his incarnation, mnd but one afterwards, was anathematized. The majority of the assembled bishops then proceeded to anathematize Dioscurus himself, and demanded that he, together with Juvenal of Jerusalem, Thalassius of CsBsarea, Eusebius of Ancyra, Eustachius of Berytus, and Basil of Selencia, who had presided at the Coun- cil, should be deposed from the episcopate. See Di- oscurus.
At the second session (Oct. 10), the following expo- sition of faith, substantially taken from a letter of Leo to Flavianus, was approved, and its opponents anathe- matized: **The divine nature and the human nature, each remaining perfect, have been united in one per- son, to the intent that the same Mediator might die, being yet immortal and impassible. . . . Neither na- ture is altered by the other ; he who is truly God is also truly man. . . . The Word and the flesh pre- serve each its proper ftmctions. Holy Scripture proves equally the verity of the two natures. He is God^ since it is written, * In the beginning was the Word, and the Word tocu God.* He is also man, since it u written, 'The Word was made flesh, and dwelt among OS.' As man, he was tempted by the devil ; as God, he is ministered unto by angels. As man, he wept over the tomb of Lazarus ; as God, he raised him from the dead. As man, he is nailed to the cross ; as God, he makes all nature tremble at his death. It is by reason of the unity of person that we say that the Son of Man came down from heaven, and that the Son of God was crucified and buried, although he was so only as to his human nature.*'
At the third session the deposition of Dioscurus was pronouncedjrrevocable, and soon after he was banish- ed to Gangra, in Paphlagonia, where, in the course of three years, he died.
In the ffth session the following formnla of faith on the question at issue was adopted: "We confess and with one accord teach one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, perfect in the divinity, perfect in the humanity, truly God and truly man, consbting of a reasonable soul and body ; consubstantial with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the manhood; in all things like unto us, sin only excepted ; who was begotten of the Father before all ages, according to the Godhead ; and in the last days, the same was born according to the manhood, of Mary the Virgin, mother of Goo; for us and for our salvation ; who is to be acknowledged one and the same Christ, the Son, the Lord, the only be- gotten in two natures, without mixture, change, divi- sion, or separation ; the difference of natures not being removed by their union, but rather the propriety of each nature being preserved and concurring in one person and in one viroaraaiQy so that he is not divided or separated into two penoru^ but the only Son, God, the Word, our Lord Jesus Christ, and one and the same person." At the later sessions (ix-xv) a num- ber of questions of order, supremacy, discipline, etc. were settled. But by tar the most important was the 28th canon, sess. xv, by which the patriarch of Con- stantinople was placed on equality of authority with tlie bishop of Rome, saving only to the latter priority of honor. The Roman delegates protested against this, and, after its adoption, Leo constantly opposed it, upon the plea that it contradicted the sixth of Nicaea, which assigned the second place in dignity to Alexandria ; however, in spite of his opposition and that of his Suc- cessors, the canon remained and was executed. See Supremacy of the Pope.