But it was in Germany that the struggle about in- vestitures was waged most fiercely, and that it also continued longest. Taking advantage of the political troubles which were agitating the countr}'. Paschal used every exertion to detach the Church entirely from the control of the state. '* Not only had Paschal II begun his course by denouncing lay investiture as strongly as his predecessor Urban II, but he had also followed the tactics of Urban." He not only put Henrj' IV a second time under the ban, but even committed one of the dark- est crimes in the annals of history. He estranged from Henry the affection of those to whose love and consider- ation he was entitled by the nost sacred of laws. Two of the sons of Henry IV were incited to rebellion against their own natural father (1101, 1104), which brought the emperor to an untimely grave of broken heart (1106). Paschal now thought, of course, that he had secured for himself the obedience of Germany, and with pride he announced that henceforth the Church would begin to enjoy anew her liberty indeed, for death had removed, and was fast removing, those who opposed her suc- cess (JVIansi, I. c. p. 1209 ; Muratori, Scriptores rerum Italic. Ill, i, 363) ; he even caused the laws on investi- ture to be reasserted by the councils of Troyes, Bene- vento (1 108), and Lateran (1 100). But for once Paschal II had made his reckoning without his host. His boast, alas, how empty ! " He had not to wait long be- fore he discovered its vainness ; for Henry V was no sooner in undisputed possession of the throne than he maintained as stoutly as his father had done his own right to invest bishops." Strengthened in his opposi- tion by the example of England, and of France also, he interpreted the actions of the councils as threats at his power, and after a vain endeavor to bring the pope to acknowledge his right in a conference at Chalons, he re- sorted to arms. At the head of a vast army he march- ed to Italy, and so terrified the pope that he obtained a very favorable compact without the least difficulty (Feb. 9, 1111). But the bishops refused to comply with it, and Henry hesitated not to force a favorable conclusion by imprisoning the pope and his cardinals. By a sec- ond treaty, which was now comjiacted (April 8, 1 1 1 1), Pascal II actually agreed to surrender all the possessions and royalties with which the Church had been endowed, and which alone had formed the subject of claim on the part of the emperor. To seal the compact more firmly, the pope ilivided the host with the emperor, and, after coronation, Henry returned to (iermany, satisfied that Rome had for once been brought low (see Stenzel, )it. i, p. 632 sq.). This treaty, however, never had any practical effect, for the Hildebrandian party disapproved of the pope's concessions, and " nothing remained for Paschal, weak and vacillating Paschal, but to annul the grant, and to assemble a council in the Lateran, and to jilead before it that the agreement had been concluded under the pressure of circumstances, in order to save the cardinals and the city of Rome ; that it was beyond his power tff
INVESTITURE
637
INVITATORY
surrender any of the liberties and rights of the Church ; that it was for the assembly to examine the agreement, and pronounce thereupon ; but that for himself he would adhere to his oath, and undertake nothing personally against Henry," i. e. poor wretched Paschal had sworn to a compact which he felt he could not break himself, but for which, none the less determined to abrogate, he sought a pretext to surrender his authority into the hands of his inferiors, that they might execute the wish- es of his heart, which lie dared not openly espouse as a pope. The action of the pope, however, in accordance with his own wishes, was repudiated in a Lateran coun- cil in 1 1 1'i (Mansi, t. xxi, p. 49 sq.), which even put the emperor again under the ban. Unfortunately, Henry had in the mean time made himself many enemies at home by his course concerning the investitures, and the excommunication still fiu-ther increased his difficulties ; yet he succeeded in overcoming tliem all at the time when the papal see least expected it, and his whole power was then directed against the latter. Henry re-en- tered Italy, seized Eome, and the pope, compelled to Hee, died at last in banishment, as by his policy he had well deserved (1118). Gelasius II was the next successor to the papal throne; but as he lived only a short time (1119), the glory of concluding the long-protracted strug- gle was reserved for Calixtus II, but not before one pre- liminary contract had been concluded and as soon vio- lated, nor before the utterance of a sentence of excom- munication and dethronement on Henry V, at the great synod at Eheinis (Labbe, xii). It was now agreed that every investiture should be retained, and each bishopric restored to its former incumbent, but that those belong- ing to the Church should be governed according to the canons, and tlie secular ones by the civil laws (Mansi, t. xxi, p. 244; Stenzel, p. 600). Upon a second consider- ation, however, tliey relented, and the question of tlie oath so(jn created new pretexts for the struggle between them, and, in a synod of Rheims (1119), Calixtus put the emperor under the ban, and deposed him (Mansi, /. c, p. 250). In the mean time, archbishop Adalbert, of Mentz, created troubles in Germany. Calixtus strength- ened his position in Rome, and even succeeded in taking the anti-pope, Gregory VIII, whom the emperor had op- posed to him, prisoner ; yet the public sentiment of Ger- many was strong enough to compel the jjapal part}' finally to adopt the course which Ivo of Chartres and the monk Hugo of Fleury had commanded. "It was an intermediate course between the extreme views of the Gregorian party on the one hand, and the secular- izing tendencies of their opponents on the other. It combated the Gregorian position that it was a degra- dation for the priesthood to own itself subject to any lay authority, and held fast to the principle that to God must be rendered tliat which is God's, and to Caesar that which is Caesar's. It therefore maintained that the king- ought not to invest the candidate bishop with staff and ring, these being the symbols of sjiiritual jurisdiction, and, as such, belonging to the archbishop; but it allow- ed homage to be done to the emperor, and the use of some other symbol for bestowing the temporalities." The celebrated concordat of Worms, Sept. 1122 (Jlansi, I. c. p. 273 sq.), finally settled the question to the satis- faction of all parties, and the Lateran Council of 1123 gave its full approval (comp. Mansi, f. c. p. 277). The emperor agreed to give up the form of investiture u-itli the ring and pastoral stojr, to grant to the clergy the right of free elections, and to restore all the ]iossessions of the Clnirch of Rome which had been seized eitlier by himself or liy his father; while the pope, on his part, consented tliat the elections should be held in the i)res- ence of tlie emperor or his official, but with a right of appeal to the provincial synod : tliat investiture might be given by the emperor, but only bi/ the touch of the sceptre ; and that the bishops and otlier church digni- taries should faithfully discharge all the feudal duties which belonged to their principality (see Montag. p.43fi »q. ; Stenzel, p. 704). Lothair III, Henry's successor.