Tow^ers, .Joseph, LL.l)., a Dissenting min- ister, was born in South- walk, London, in 17o7, and was apprenticed to Mr. Goadby, printer, at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, in ITo-l. He returned to London in 17(U. where he worked at his trade, and afterwards became a book-seller. He was ordained a preacher in 1774, and was chosen pastor of a congregaticn at Highgate. In 177S h. became forenoon preach- er at a chapel in New- ington Green. He died in 1799. Mr.T'owers was an Arian, though closely connected with the Unitarians. He wrote. Review of the Genuine Doctrines of Christvwity (Lond. 1763, 8vo): — Ohsei-vations on /Jume's History of Enfihind (ibid. 1778, Svo) -.—British Biofjraphy (1766-72,7 vols. 8vo ; 1773-80, 10 vols. 8vo [vols, i-vii by Towers; viii-x by a clergyman]) :— Vindication of the Political Opinions of f.ocke (1782, 8vo): — Afemmrs of Frederick the Great (1788, 2 vols. 8vo; 1795, 2 vols.*8vo:— 7'/«c/6' on Polit-
Brislington, Somersetshire.
TOWERSO^
506
TOWX
iml and other Subjects (1796, 3 vols. 8vo) :— besides Ser- »io«.f, aiui articles to the Bi>;,rophia Britanriiax. See Alliboiie, Did. «f Brit, and Amer. A uthurs, s. v.; Dar- ling, Cyclop. Biblioy. s. v.
Towerson, (Jabuiki., D.D., a learned English di- vine, was a native of Miildlcsex. and hecame a com- moner of Qneen's Cllege, Oxford, in IGoO. where he took Ids A.:M. in 1(5 J7. In 1000 he was elected fellow of All-Souls', and entered holy orders at ahout the same time. He was lirst preferred to the rectory of Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, and took his degree of D.D. in 1(577. An April, Ui<12. lie was inducted into the living of St. Andrew Undersliaft, London, to which he was presented by king William. He died in October, 1097, and was interred at Welwyn. His works are, A Brief Account of Some Expressions in St. Athtinasius's Creed (Oxford, 1603, 4to):— An Explication of the Decalogue, or Ten Comimmdments, and an Explication of the Catechism of the Church of England (Lond. 1076-88, 4 pts. fol.):— Of the Sacraments in General, etc. (ibid. 1080, 8vo):— Of the Sacrament of Baptism in Particular among the Heathen and Jews, etc. (1087, 8vo). See Chalmers, biog. Diet. s. v. ; Allihone, Diet, of Brit, and A mer. A a- thors, s. V. ; Darling, Cyclop. Bibiiog. s. v.
Towgood, Micaiah, an English Dissenting min- ister, was horn at Axminster in 1700, became pastor at Moreton-Ilampstcad in 172-2, removed to Crediton in 1735, and in 1750 to Exeter, where he died in 1792, He wrote. Dissenter's Apology (Lond. 1739. 8vo) : — Dis- senting Gentleman s Answer to Rev. Mr. White {l7iG-i8, 6th ed. 3 vols. 8vo) -.—Essay on Charles / (1748 ; new ed. 1X1 1. 12mo) ■.^JHssertalionson Christian Baptism (1750; new ed. with notes, etc., 1815, r2mo). See AUibone, Did. of Brit, and A mer. A uthors, s. v. ; Manning, Life and Writings of Toicgood (1792); Skeats, Hist, of Free Churches of England, p. 419 sq.
Towgood, Richard, an English prelate, was made dean of Bristol in 1007, and died in 1083. He published a Sermon on Acts vii, 8 (Lond. 1670). See Allibone, Diet. ofBnt. arulAmer. A uthors, s. v.
Town (not carefully distinguished in the A. V. from " city," which latter is the usual rendering of "i^>, occa- sionally "town:" this latter is also the translation, at times, of "'"'p, prop, a wall, as usually rendered ; "ilSn, a village, as generally rendered ; and so Kiofir} in the New Test, [once more distinctively /coj^iSttoXic, Mark i, 38] ; ra, a daughter, sometimes lig. employed ; m^n, only in the phrase Havoth-jair [(j. v.]; niTTS, "unwalled towns," means rather open country). The Hrst mention of such collective residence occurs early in the antedilu- vian history ((ien. iv, 17), but we are not to think, in the case of such primitive '"cities," of anything more than a mere hamlet, the nucleus, perhaps, of an eventual metropolis. Towns, however, appear in the history of the patriarchs as strong central points of the agricult- ural tribes in nomadic regions. They were therefore enclosed with walls, and thus each town was originally a fortress (see Numb, xxxii, 17; hence the term "li^'i, literally a fort, applied Kar itox>lv to Tyre, Josh, xix, 29; 2 Sam. xxiv, 7); such as tlie cities which the Is- raelites captured and demolished under Joshua. For this |)urpose eminences and hills (comp. ^Matt. v, 14) were naturally selected as more commanding anil secure ■ sites (see Kiinig, he Montilms, Urhium A ntiquhis. Sedi- bus [Ann;el)erg. 1790]), a precaution which Palestine, with its varied surface and exposed situation, especially suggested (comp. 2 Sam. iv, 0). A\'e know litde, how- ever, of the exact architectural style ol' its cities, with the exception of Jerusalem. In modern times Oriental towns are built very wide-spreading, and often include extensive open spaces, gardens, etc. (see Thevenot, ii, 1 14 ; Buckingham, p. 95, 335 ; Tavernier, i, 169 ; Kosen- miiller, Morgenl. iv, 395 sq.). e. g. Damascus (Kiimpfer estimates Ispahan as more than a day's ride in circuit.
Amcen. Exot. p. 16.3). This especially applies to the largercitiesof Asia, such as Babylon and Nineveh, which enclosed an area of many miles (see Kitter, Erdk. xi, 903). The gates of the cities were closed (Josh, ii, 5 sc). ; Jiidg.xvi,3; 1 Sam.xxiii,7; 1 Ringsiv, 13; I'sa. cxlvii, 13, etc.) with strong Adding-doors (^"'rb'l, nirb'l) with brazen or iron bars (C^n'^^a), and were surmount- ed by turrets (2 Sara, xviii, 32), which were guarded by sentries (ver. 24 sq.). In these the governors and judges held their sittings, and a more or less extensive square (2n"i, wdiich, however, does not always mean an open place, but sometimes a wide [TrXfiTcT't] street. Gen. xix, 2; Judg. xix, 15, 17, 20) adjoined (Ezra x, 9; Neh. viii, 1, 3, 10; 2 Sam. xxi, 12; 1 Chron. xxxii, 0; Job xxix, 7 ; Cant, iii, 2) where the market was held (2 Kings vii, 1 ; comp. ayopai, Josephus, Life, 22). The streets (r'jSJin, Job xviii. 17; Isa. v, 25; Jer. xxxvii, 21, etc,; Cp'^W, Cant, iii, 2 ; Eccles, xii, 4, etc. ;• TrXaraai, Matt, vi, 5; xii, 19; Acts v, 15, etc.) were not so narrow (j-et see ani'ioTTot; applied to those of Jerusalem in Jose- phus, H'fN-, vi,8,5) as in modern Oriental towns (Maun- drell,p. 172; Olearius, p. 291 ; Itussegger, i, 307 ; Robin- son, i, 38; iii, 097), where, as in Acre (]\Iariti, p. 240), scarcely two laden camels, or in Damascus (Schubert, iii, 29) scarcely a single one, can pass (Burckhardt, A 7-ab. p. 151), The streets of Hebrew antitpiity (at least in the large towns) had names, which were sometimes taken from those of the kind of trade carrie<l on in them (Jer. xxxvii, 2; comp, djopai, Josephus, War, v, 8, 1, like modern bazaars ; Kussell, A leppo. i. 29 s(j. ; Harmer, i, 245 sq. ; Arvieux, i, 55 ; Ker Porter, i, 401), 407). They were occasionally paved in the later period (Josephus, .4?i^xv,9,6; xvi, 5, 3; xx, 9,7); in earlier times (comp. Isidore, Orig. xv, 16) we tind notice of paving in the court of the Temple (2 Kings xvi, 17). From 1 Kings XX, 34 it would seem that kings sometimes constructed or improved certain avenues (comp, Kosemniiller, Mor- genl. iii, 201 sq,). Aqueducts (r'Srn) were built in Je- rusalem before the exile (2 Kings xx*20; Isa, vii, 3; xxii, 9; for Pilate's undertaking see Josephus, Anf, xviii, 3, 2; comp. War, ii, 17, 9; Kobinson, ii, 166 sq.) ; other cities were supplied by springs (see Josephus, Ant. xvii, 13, 1) and cisterns, the latter, at times, of very ex- pensive construction {War. vii, 8, 3). See Watki{.