RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Saint-Maur
Saints
that he could accomplish his intended social renovation through an alliance of science and industry. With this end in view, he traveled in Germany and England, but found nothing to reward his pains. By this time he had lost his property. He now wrote, among other works, Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve a ses contemporains (1802); Introduction aux travaux scientifiques du dixneuvieme siecle (2 vols., 1808); De la reorganisation de la ocietS europeenne (1814); and L'Industrie, ou discussions politiques, morales et philosophiques (1817). His appeals for financial aid to scholars, bankers, and Napoleon himself were in vain. Cuvier alone encouraged him, while Lafitte and Ternaux helped defray the expense of publishing his writings. All his efforts to attract the attention of the public were equally fruitless, even his daring Le Politique, Vorganisateur, systeme industriel des Bourbons et des Stuarts (1820). In despair he was about to commit suicide, but was prevented from so doing. Henceforth his fortunes were better, and with the help of his devoted adherent, Olinde Rodrigues, he published his Catechisme politique (1823-24) and Nouveau christianisme (1825; Eng. transl., New Christianity, London, 1834).
In St. Simon's ideal society industry was to rule all. By " industry," however, he understood all labor, scientific as well as manual, so that among the working classes scholars and artists were to constitute the aristocracy. While recognising the power of the medieval Church as a factor of civilization, however, he failed to understand the basal doctrines of Christianity, holding that the principle of Christ and the apostles afforded " the quickest possible amelioration of material conditions among the poorer classes." He was .equally blind to the course of history, maintaining that the gradual changes in doctrine, dogma, and mode of thought were the results of capricious interference on the part of individuals.
The teachings of St. Simon were propagated by his followers, the St. Simonists, who included Rodrigues, Auguste Comte (see Positivism), Bazard, and Enfantin. Their place of meeting was closed by the government because of their radicalism, and Enfantin established at Menilmontant, which was then a suburb of Paris, a sort of monastery, where he, as " pere supreme," ruled a community in motley. But it was closed for offenses against morality, and Enfantin and his colleague, Michel Chevalier, were sentenced to a year's imprisonment, thus breaking the spirit of the entire movement. His works have been collected in (Euvres de Saint-Simon et d' Enfantin (47 vols., Paris, 1865-78), to which a life is prefixed. (C. Pfender.)
Bibliography: F. W. Carowe, Der Saint-Simonismus und die heutige franzosische Philosophie, Leipsic, 1831 , L. Stein, Der Sozialismus und Kommunismus des heutigen Frankreich, ib. 1842; C. Des Guerrois, Etudes littiraires et biographiques, Paris, 1856; N. G. Hubbard, Saint-Simon, sa vie, ses travaux, ib. 1857; Marie Recourt, Resurrection du Pere Enfantin. Quelques lumieres sur la doctrine de Saint- Simon, ib. 1858; W. R. L. Reybaud, Etudes sur les reformateurs contemporains, ib. 1864; A. J. Booth, Saint Simon, and Saint Simonism, London, 1071; P. Janet, Saint- Simon et le Saint-Simonisme, Paris, 1878; O. Warschauer, Saint-Simon und der Saint-Simonismus, Leipsic, 1892; G. Weil, Un Pricurseur du socialisme, Saint-Simon et son
aeuvre, Paris, 1894; idem, L'Ecole saint-simonienne, son hist., son influence jusq'a nos jours, ib. 1896; P. Weisengruen. Die sozialwissenschaftlichen Ideen Saint-Simons, Basel, 1895; S. Chariety, Hist, du Saint-Simonisme (1825- 1864), Paris, 1896; L. Paoli, Le Saint-Simonisme en Italie, ib. 1898; La Grande Encyclopedic vol. xxix., ib. 1901; F. Muckle, Saint-Simon und die okonomische Geschichtstheorie, Jena, 1906.
SAINTS, VENERATION OF: In accordance with Old-Testament usage (e.g., Dan. vii. 18 sqq.) the name " saints " (Gk. hagioi, Lat., sancti) is applied in the New Testament to the members of the Christian community, and especially to those dwelling in Jerusalem. This use occurs as late as Hippolytus. At an early time attention was directed to individuals who by deeds and lives of extraordinary piety seemed to reveal the presence of the Spirit in exceptional fulness. Naturally this character was ascribed to those whose lives were Before crowned with the glory of martyrdom, Constantine. a view definitely expressed for the first time in the account rendered by the community at Smyrna of the death of Polycarp (about 155). The reproach advanced by the Jews that the Christians of Smyrna seemed desirous of adoring Polycarp in place of Christ caused the community to define their attitude toward the martyrs whom they declared they " did not worship as they did Christ the son of God, but regarded them with fond affection as witnesses and imitators of the Lord." Yet Lucian bears testimony to the reverence with which the confessors were regarded even in their lifetime. Between them, as representatives of the highest ideals of Christian saintliness, and the officials of the Church a certain measure of rivalry prevailed; on the theory that their superabundant merit might atone for the failings of others, they came to exercise to a certain extent the power of the keys.
With the conversion of Constantine and the cessation of persecution in the State the early confessors together with the prophets and apostles attained an unprecedented authority, Rise of and names of hitherto local vogue bethe Cultus. gan to receive the veneration of the entire Church. Through the veneration of saints heathenism made its way into the Church which had supplanted it. Pagan worship of the dead became Christian martyrolatry, and the birthday feasts of the martyrs were but modifications of the banquets signalizing the pagan parentalia (V- Schultze, Geschichte des Untergangs des griechisch-romischen Heidenthums, ii. 351-353, Jena, 1892). Aphrodite became the source of legends connected with the names of Pelagia, Maria, Marina, Margaret, Anthusa, and Eugenia, and during the last years of an expiring paganism marked by the wide-spread worship of female divinities greater emphasis came to be laid on the worship of the " Mother of God." With the gods came also the heroes; the hymn to the martyr was but a substitute for the hymn to the hero, the translation of one was the deification of the other, and the pagan statue was replaced by the Christian relic, in the adoration of which such enlightened spirits as Gregory of Nyssa engaged. The host of saints, increased by th< ; accession of a new category, that of
Saints
Salmasms