RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Universities
servative lines, at Miinster in 1773, while Joseph II. established a German university, unauthorized by the pope, at Lemberg in 1781. In France, during this period, the theological faculties were replaced by the episcopal seminaries advocated by the Council of Trent, while the faculties of arts, divorced from theology, became colleges corresponding to the German gymnasia, so that the university properly comprised only the technical schools of medicine and law. The Revolution officially suppressed all universities. In England the old universities preserved their medieval college organization. East of Germany ignorance prevailed, despite the exertions of Peter the Great and his successors. Moscow was indeed founded in 1755, but Dorpat was silent for a hundred years, first reviving early in the nineteenth century. In North America the eighteenth century saw the foundation of Princeton (1746), Pennsylvania (1749), King’s College (1754; now Columbia University), and Rhode Island College (1763; now Brown University).
The early nineteenth century was controlled by the effects of the French Revolution. Not only had this storm overthrown all the French universities, but also Treves, Mainz, Bonn, and Cologne. In 1794 Stuttgart was incorporated with Tiibingen, and secularization successively destroyed the universities of Fulda (1802), Bamberg (1803), Duisburg (1806), Altdorf and Dillingen (1809), Salzburg, Rinteln, and Helmstedt (1810), Erfurt (1816); and Miinster and Paderborn (1818). Frankfort was incorporated with Breslau in 1811 and Wittenberg with Halle in 1815. Ingolstadt was transferred, under rationalistic influences, to Landshut in 1800, and-in 1826 became the University of Munich. Prussia, on the other hand, received two new universities: Berlin (1809-10) and Bonn (1818). The latter, like Breslau, has both a Roman Catholic and a Protestant theological faculty. Tiibingen likewise received a Roman Catholic theological faculty in 1817. In place of the suppressed episcopal university at Minster the State founded a Roman Catholic academy with theological and philosophical faculties, which has been restored to university rank by the addition of a legal faculty. A like institution was established by the State at Braunsberg, while since the Franco-Prussian War the University of Strasburg has been founded (1872), which, like Breslau, Bonn, and Tiibingen, has received a Roman Catholic theological faculty.
In Austria some universities, as those of Graz and Innsbruck, which were made lyceums under the reforms of Joseph II., have been restored to their
former rank; in 1875 the University
11. Nineteenth Century; Germany.
12. The of Czernowitz was established, while Continent in 1882 the University of Prague split
and into a German and a Czech section. England. In 1872 Hungary received her second
national university in Klausenburg. In 1832 and 1834 the old schools of Zurich and Bern were made German Swiss universities beside the ancient university of Basel, while in French Switzerland the Calvinistic academies of Geneva and Lausanne were transformed into universities in 1873 and 1891. In France Napoleon I. combined
Universities
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
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all education in the huge organism of the University of France, but since 1896 the third republic has restored individual universities on the German model, the present state universities being those of Aachen, Besancon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont- Ferrand, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse. In England Durham University was established in 1832, followed in 1836 by the University of London, which was only an examining body until 1903, when it became also a teaching body, a similar course being followed by the University of Wales after 1898. Spain possesses the following universities, all of them several centuries old: Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. Italy has a superfluity of universities in Bologna, Cagliari, Camerino, Catania, Ferrara, Genoa, Macerata, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Parma, Pavia, Perugia, Pisa, Rome, Sassari, Sienna, Turin, and Urbino. The University of Christiania was founded in Norway in 1811, while Belgium received the institutions at Ghent in 1816, Liége in 1817, and Brussels in 1834, Holland also establishing a university at Amsterdam in 1876.
During the nineteenth century, indeed, universities were founded throughout the world. Russia gained the institutions at Charkow, Kazan, War-
saw, St. Petersburg, Kief, Odessa, and
13. Other Tomsk; while on the Balkan penin-
Founda- sula the University of Athens was es-
tions. tablished in 1837, the institutions at Jassy, Bucharest, Belgrade, and Sofia following in the second half of the same century. Even Turkey founded a sort of university at Constantinople in 1900. India possesses universities at Bombay and Madras (both founded in 1857), and at Lahore (1882). In the Philippines the Dominican school which had existed for centuries was made the University of Manila in 1857. Japan has possessed a university at Tokyo since 1868 and at Kyoto since 1895; while there are Australian universities at Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853). For universities in the United States see below, §§ 14-16. For Canada mention may be made of the universities of Montreal and Toronto. In South America there has been a university at Montevideo since 1849, and the Argentine Republic also possesses one at Buenos Aires. In Africa mention should be made of the French academy at Algiers (1879), the Mohammedan school of al-Azhar at Cairo (1896), and the university of the Cape of Good Hope (1873), though the latter, like the universities in India, is only an examining body. (E. Horn.)
Underneath the history of the university in America is the development, through the influence of the American college, of a national interest in higher education, in some of its local aspects perhaps less developed and provincial, but always sincere and often self-sacrificing and heroic. The historic beginning of higher education in America is found in the grant in 1636, by the General Court of Massachusetts Bay, of £400 for the establishment of a college; a few years later, the college received a bequest from John Harvard of half his estate be-
sides half his excellent library. In these two transactions appears the dual economic foundation upon which have been reared all the institu-
14. Amer- tions of higher learning in America,
ican Uni- namely, the voluntary support of the
versities. State and private benefaction. State
Economic. aid has come in the form of exemption
Founda- from taxation of property devoted to
tions. | edutational purposes; the grant of public lands to educational institutions; appropriations from the general revenues; the levying of special taxes or the application of specified taxes to the support of schools, colleges, and universities. The private benefactions have included individual gifts running from paltry sums to millions of dollars and concerted movements for the raising of endowments and other funds. Perhaps no other phenomenon of the twentieth century will be more significant than the princely gifts to the higher education which have marked its first decade; with these gifts has come the accompanying recognition of the place of the university in the higher life of the American people, a recognition seen both in the share which falls directly to the universities and in the proportion of university officers who have been made trustees in charge of the disbursement of the gifts. The total private benefactions for the year 1907-08, as reported to the United States Commissioner of Education by 464 institutions of higher learning, amounted to $14,820,955, while the gifts for the previous year were greater by more than eight million dollars. The total value of the property of the institutions reporting was $576,899,342, nearly half of which consists of productive endowments.
The universities of America present most diversified forms of organization; they may be roughly divided into three classes according to the basis of
control. (1) State universities, which 15. Types of are controlled ultimately by the state
American governments, though the direct control
Universities. is generally vested in a board of regents
or trustees, whose membership may be appointive or elective, according to the law of the particular state. The state university, especially in the western states, is a vital part of the public school system, over all of which it is exerting an increasing influence. Typical examples are the universities of Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and California. (2) Quasi-public universities, which are controlled by boards of trustees, generally self-perpetuating, to membership in which, in theory at least, all men of reputable standing are eligible. Of this type are most of the older foundations in the eastern states (e.g., Harvard, Yale, and Princeton universities), where state-controlled universities have never attained to great importance. In many cases, the alumni have some representative share in the control of this type of university. (3) Denominational universities, which by their charters are controlled by organized religious bodies or which place some religious qualification for membership in the legal board of control. In this third group belong the University of Chicago, Brown University, and the Roman Catholic universities, representing three different forms of religious control.