108 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Universities
While there have been some noticeable movements in certain institutions of the second group toward a closer relationship with the State, as in the case of Cornell University, a still more noteworthy phenomenon of recent years has been the transfer of colleges and universities from the third to the second of these groups, under the influence of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The question of the ethics and the wisdom of the change has been frequently raised, but the break from the earlier denominational relationship has usually been one of legal form rather than of actual severance of historic traditions. While ultimate control of all university activities remains in the boards which control the property, the faculty, the teaching force of the institution, generally has wide powers in all matters pertaining to education itself and the discipline of the students.
Probably no satisfactory definition can be made which will differentiate between the college and the university in America. The tests of Huropean
usage are not available here. The 16. Activi- American university need not comties of prise the four standard faculties of the
American German university, nor is it made up Universities. necessarily of a group of colleges.
Probably the most essential requirement of the American university is that it shall afford to those who have had a collegiate training the opportunity for research and advancement in higher learning; in proportion as this opportunity is present does the institution deserve in America the name “ university.””’ To Johns Hopkins University is generally given the honor of having first met this essential requirement, while Harvard University, under the lead of Dr. Charles W. Eliot, first adopted the elective system by which, with various local adjustments, the American college has in many cases been able to raise itself to the university standard, thus keeping the development of the American university in most vital relationship with the college. In recent years there has been a noteworthy movement on the part of the American universities to get closer to the people through various forms of social service. In this, the University of Wisconsin has perhaps gained the leadership, through its efficient schemes of university extension, involving the spread of pure culture, the application of the natural sciences, even the application of the social sciences through assistance rendered to the legislative and municipal bodies. In these various ways the universities are developing a life which is making them perhaps at the present time the most representative of all American institutions, combining freedom and responsibility, idealism and practicality.
Comprehensive statistics of the American colleges and universities may be found in the Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Education.
Wiiuiam H. Auison.
BrstrograpHy: General works are: H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., Oxford, 1895; F. G. von Savigny, Geschichte des rémischen Rechts im Mittelalter, 7 vols., Heidelberg, 1826-51; J. H. Newman, Historical Sketches, vol. i., London, 1873; H. Denifle, Die Universitaten des Mittelalters, Berlin, 1885; 8. 8. Laurie, Lectures on the Rise of Universities, London, 1886; E. Emerton, Mediaeval Europe (814-1300), pp. 452-453, 465-471, Boston, 1896; J. R. Mott, Universities and Colleges as Related
to the Progress of Christianity, London, 1897; G. H. Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, i. 178 sqq., New York, 1897; idem, Censorship of the Church of Rome (consult Index), 2 vols., ib. 1907; O. Thatcher and F. Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, pp. 597-601, ib. 1900; S. G. Williams, Hist. of Medieval Education, Syracuse, 1908; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Medieval Civilization, pp. 145-147, 217-218, 348-357, et passim, New York, 1904; J. B. Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great, new ed., Cambridge and New York, 1911; J. M. Stone, Reformation and Renaissance (c. 13877-1610), London, 1904; C. F. Thwing, Universities of the World, New York, 1911; F. A. Ogg, Source Book of Medieval Hist., pp. 340-351, New York, 1908; F.P.Graves, A History of Education before the Middle Ages, ib. 1909; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, chap. xi.; Henderson, Documents, pp. 262- 266.
On the British Empire: R. Lethbridge, Higher Education in India, London, 1882; W. R. Roberts, British Universittes, Manchester, 1892; R. C. Jebb, The Work of the Universities for the Nation, Cambridge, 1893; J. F. Willard, The Royal Authority and the Early English Universities, Philadelphia, 1902; L. Hutton, Literary Landmarks of the Scottish Universities, New York, 1904; J. Kerr, Scottish Education. School and University from the Earliest Times to 1908, Edinburgh, 1910; C. Innes, Fasti Aberdonenses, Aberdeen, 1854; C. H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge, 4 vols., Cambridge, 1842-52; idem, Athene Cantabrigtenses, 2 vols., London, 1858-61; J. B. Mullinger, Hist. of the University of Cambridge, 3 vols., Cambridge, new ed., 1911; idem, a smaller independent work with same title, London, 1888; A. H. Thompson, Cambridge and its Colleges, New York, 1899; W. B.S. Taylor, Hist. of the University of Dublin, London, 1845; J. W. Stubbs, Hist. of the University of Dublin, Dublin, 1890; Sir A. Grant, Story of the University of Edinburgh, London, 1884; W. Stewart, The University of Glasgow, Glasgow, 1891; E. V. Vaughan, Origin and Early Development of the English Universities, Columbia, Mo., 1908; J. Coutts, A History of the University of Glasgow. From its Foundation in 1451 to 1909, London, 1910; A. & Wood, Athene Oxonienses, ed. P. Bliss, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; H. C. M. Lyte, Hist. of the University of Oxford, Oxford, 1886; G. C. Brodrick, Hist. of the University of Oxford, London, 1887; A. Clark, The Colleges of Oxford, ib. 1893.
For the United States: A. Ten Brook, American State Universities, Cincinnati, 1875; P. de Coubertin, Universités transatlantiques, Paris, 1890; A. Zimmerman, Die Universititen in den Vereinigten Staaten Amerikas, Freiburg, 1896; J. L. Chamberlain and others, Universities and their Sons, 5 vols., Boston, 1899 (Harvard, New York University, and University of Pennsylvania); E.S. A. Robson, Report of a Visit to American Educational Institutions, London, 1905; J. Corbin, Which College for the Boy? Leading Types in American Education, Boston, 1908; E. E. Slosson, Great American Universities, London, 1910; J. H. Reynolds and D. Y. Thomas, Hist. of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark., 1910; W. C. Jones, Illustrated Hist. of the University of California, Berkeley, 1902; J. H. Van Amringe, Historical Sketch of Columbia College, New York, 1876; A. D. White, Scenery of Ithaca, New York, 1866 (on Cornell); J. G. Schurmann, A Generation of Cornell, 1868— 1898, New York, 1898; W. T. Hewett, Cornell University, 4 vols., Ithaca, 1905; B. P. Smith, Hist. of Dartmouth College, Boston, 1878; F. Chase, Hist. of Dartmouth College, Cambridge, Mass., 1891; S. A. Eliot, A Sketch of the Hist, of Harvard College, Boston, 1878; F. O. Vaille and H. A. Clark, The Harvard Book, 2 vols., ib. 1879; S. B. Harding, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 1905; J. W. Andrews, Historical Sketch of Marietta College, Cincinnati, 1876; E. M. Farrand, Hist. of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1885; B. A. Hinsdale, Hist. of the University of Michigan, ib. 1907; A. H. Wilde, Northwestern University, 4 vols., New York, 1906; H. Garst, Otterbein University, Dayton, O., 1908; T. H. Montgomery, Hist. of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1887; J. Maclean, Hist. of the College of New Jersey, Philadelphia, 1877; J. F. Hageman, Hist. of Princeton and its Institutions, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1879; K. P. Battle, Hist. of the University of North Carolina, Raleigh, N. C., 1907; M. Laborde, Hist. of the South Carolina College, Charleston, 1874; A. Van V. Raymond, Union University, 3 vols., New York, 1907; G. R. Fairbanks, Hist. of the University of the South, Jacksonville, Fla., 1906; T. Jefferson and J. C. Cubell,
Universities Urban