J. Hastings.
FRUSTRATE.— 2 Es 10^ ' For.sake me not, lest I die frustrate of my hope ' (ut non fruit ra nioriar), and Jth 11" 'That my lord be not defeated and frustr.ate of his purpose' {airpaKTO!). So Hooker, Ercl. I'ulitij, I. xi. 4, ' It is an axiom of nature that natural desire cannot utterly V)e fruslratu'; and Knox, Hiit. 29, 'King Henry frustrate re- turned to London, and after his indi^^'nation de- clared, began to fortify with men his frontiers toward Scotland.' Such past participles, formed in imitation of the Latin, are common in Eliza- bethan English. Shaks. uses this form still more boldly a.s an adj., Tewjiest, III. iii. 10 — * The sea mocks Our trustrate search on land.'
The meaning is 'defeated,' 'baulked.' The .sam« sense is found with the infin. in Ezr 4' ' Hired counsellors against them to frustrate their pur- pose' (nsn?); and with the finite verb in Is 44" '[the Lord] that frustrateth the tokens of the liars' (^£p, Wye. [1382], 'voide makende tocnes of deuynoures ' ; Gov. ' I destroy the tokens of witches ' ; Del. ' who brings to nought the signs of the lying prophets'). And in the same sense RV adds. Job 5'^ 'He frustrateth the devices of the crafty' (i;?, AV ' He disappointeth'). But ia Gal 2-' the meaning is different, ' I do not frus- trate the grace of God ' (dflfTu, RV ' make void '), i.e. not 'baulk,' 'thwart,' or 'disappoint,' but 'nullify,' 'render inoperative,' 'make of no avail or value.' So Elyot, The Governour, ii. 3S.5, 'To suche persones as do contemne auncient histories . . . it may be sayd, that in contemnynge histories they frustrate Experience.'
Goodwin, therefore {Works, i. pt. 2, p. 205), misses the point when he says, ' It waa God's great design to advance grace, and therefore he calls their stepping aside from the doctrine thereof, a frustrating of the grace of God, Gal. ii. ult., which men do by mingling anything with it ; it is a frustrating of the grace of God, because it frustrateth the great design of God, for to frustrate is to make void a design.' Dr. Gwynne {in inc.) brings out the meaning thus : ' I do not make void the atoning grace of God by seeking to justify mj/setf; for if righteousness come by law, then, indeed, Christ died needlessly, and tht 'jrace 0/ God is made of none erfect.' The older versions are inaccurate or inadequate, Wye. 'cast not awei' (after Vulg. non abiici*i), so Gov. Khem. ; Tind. ' despyse,' so Rog. Cran. ; Gen. better 'abrogate'; Bish. 'reject.* Augustine is right — non irritamfacio.
J. Hastlnos. FRYING-PAN.— See Food.
FUEL. — The Hebrews indicated fuel by a figure as the 'food of fire' (Is O"- '» [Heb. •"■'«] u'x nSiN?, EV ' fuel of fire ' ; Ezk 15^- « 21='- n^rx). In ancient as in modem times, wood was no doubt the principal fuel, either in its natural state or prepiired as charcoal. There is no sufficient evi- dence of the use of mineral coal as fuel. With regard to the use of wood as fuel, we may a.ssume that the variety of woods employed for this purpose was as great as it is in Syria to-day (see thelistpreparedby PostinP£i^67,1891, n. llStt'.). The term d-x;' (lit. woods) is applied efjually to the 'sticks' or twigs gathered by individuals (Nu \S'-- *', 1 K \V- '-), and to the faggots or logs prepared by felling and cutting up the trees of the forest (Lv 1^^- 4'*). A few of such trees are named in Is 44'''"'". Shrubs of every variety were used for the same purpose, such as the rothem (□m Ps 120* 'coals oi juniper,' more correctly as RVm ' coals of broom '), a slirub very largely used as fuel by the Arabs of the present day (Palmer, Doughty). Reduced to charcoal (see below), the rut/iem (Arab, ritm) is said to throw out an intense heat. References to thorns (n-i-c, a-yp) as fuel are numerous in Scripture ; the 'dtdd (lyx Ps 58'° [Eng. "J), probably the buck-thorn (see Thorns AND Thistles), is mentioned in particular. The use of chatr, which includes the chopped straw (dbn) from the threshing-floor, is likewise referre<l to (Mt 3'-), as also of withered herbage {xipros, EV ' grass') in general (Mt (P", Lk 1'2-^).
The Hebrews, as we h.ave remarked .ibove, were familiar with the advantage, as fuel, of wood in the form of charcoal, for such, without doubt, was the ' coal ' of Scripture (see CoAL). The ancient Egyptians, ace. to Wilkinson (ed. 1878, ii. 3.^, 36), used fa"gots of wood for heating water and boiling meat, but preferred charcoal for roast- ing. However this may have been among the Hebrews, the fuel used for the brasier (ny Jer 3C~"' AV 'hearth,' RV 'brasier") or chafing-dish (»!< T'j Zee I'i", RV ' pan of fire'), by whicli the houses of the upper classes were warmed in winter, was undoubtedly charcoal (cf. Jn IS" 21'). Nu
FUGITIVE
FURXACK
such luxury would be found in the hoiises of the iioor, wlio had to content themselves with a tire of togs or twigs placed in a depression in the floor of tlie living-room. The smoke from such a hearth (perhaps nifio — although this word is in our extant literature used only of the altar-hearth, Lv 6'^ [Eng. 6'] — mod. Arab, the same) escaped as best it could through the door or the latticed window (Hos 13', EV ' chimney '). Chimneys in our sense were not kno^vn, although, by a corruption of the text, 2 Es 6'' is made to speak of ' the cliimneys of Zioa.'