THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
mun as TertuUian, Hilary of Poitiers, Cassian,and Faustus of Riez. His arguments for a spiritual substance hiwe reappeared substantially in works of Thomas Aquinas and Descartes. (F. Arnold.)
Bibliography: The Epistola ad Sidonium is in MGH, Auct. ant., viii (1887), 53-54. Consult: Tillemont, Memo\rts. xvi. 119-126, 741, cf. Histoire litttTCirede la France, ii. 442-446; M. Schultze, Claudianus Mamertus ilber daa Wesen der Seele. Dresden, 1883; F. Ueberweg, Geschichte der Philosophie, ii. 121, Berlin, 1886, Eng. transl., i. 352- 354, New York, 1872; De la Broise, Mamerti Claudiani l ii^ ejusque doctrina de anima hominis, Paris, 1890; G. F. Arnold, Ca-sarius von Arelaie und die gallische Kirche seiner Zeit. pp. 89, 131, 325-326, Leipsic, 1894.
CLAUDIUS (Tiberius Claudius Germanicus) :
Roman emperor 41-.'>4 a.d. His name comes into connection with the history of primitive Christianity through the steps taken by him against the Jews in Rome. Soon after his accession, in opposition to the policy of his predecessor, Caligula, he had restored to them religious liberty. As time went on, he saw himself obliged, at least as concerned the Roman Jews, to return to a policy of repression. It is to this that Suetonius alludes {Claudius, XXV.). This measure affected the Jewish couple Aquila and Priscilla, who were then residents of Rome (Acts xviii. 2). The reference of Suetonius to " Chrestus " has given rise to a longstanding controversy whether he means to imply that the disturbances were caused by the preaching of Christianity (about which Suetonius evidently knew httle, if he represents Christ as living in Rome), or whether he refers to a later, otherwise unknown, Jewish agitator named Chrestus. The possibility of the former hypothesis is confirmed by other events in the Apostolic Age (Acts xvii. 5 sqq., xxi. 27 sqq.) ; but it is unlikely that such a gross mistake was made by Suetonius, who must have known from Tacitus, with whom he was acquainted, that Christ had already been put to death at Jerusalem in the time of Tiberius. Considering, moreover, the active intercourse between the Roman Jews and Palestine, it is hard to believe that the Messianic controversies should have taken fifteen or twenty years to reach an acute stage in Rome, and that, on the other hand, the Christian community there should have already attained sufficient importance for their relations with orthodox Judaism to cause disturbances of so serious a nature as to necessitate such severe measures on the part of a government in general friendly to the Jews. The exact date of the expulsion is unknown. Orosius {Hist., VII. vi. 15) assigns it to the ninth year of Claudius (49 a.d.). Josephus is silent on the point. The vague term " lately " of Acts xviii. 2 offers no objection to this date. Dio Cassius (Ix. 6) apparently refers to a different procedure; it is impossible to harmonize the two accounts. Victor Schultze.
Bibliography: H. Lehmann, Claudius und Nero und ihre Zeit. vol i., Gotha, 1858; H. Vogelstein and P. Rieger, Gesrhichte der Jvden in Rom, i. 18 sqq., Berlin, 1869; K. Schmidt. Anfdnge des Christenlums rii der Stadt Rom, Heidelberg, 1879; T. Keini, Rom und dan Christentum. Berlin, IXXl; J. Kneucker, A.ifiinge r/cs nmi-irhen Clirislenlurm, Carlsruhe, ; Schtirer, Ccsrlnildi-, i. ,502-503, iii. 31-,33, 74, Eng. transl., I. ji. 99, II ii. 236-237, 2i;(i; Aloeller, Christian Church, i. 75-76.
CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS: German author; b. at Reinfeld (10 m. w. of Lubeck) Aug. 15, 1740; d. at Hamburg Jan. 21, 1815. He studied law at Jena, and spent the most of his life at Wandsbeck, as auditor of the Bank of Sleswick-Holstem at Altona, and as private citizen. His writmgs are poems and articles published over the signature " Asmus " in the Wandsbecker Bote and other periodicals. He issued the first collection of these (Contributions at Hamburg in 1775, and the last in 1812 (8 vols., 13th ed., 2 vols., Gotha, 19(12), entitling liis work Asmus omnia sua secum portans, Oder samtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten. Claudius was not a theologian, nor were his essays homiletic or devotional, while his poems are never used as hymns in the churches. His leading characteristics were practical Christianity, expressed in the language of the people, and earnestness, thinly veiled by irony and humor. In tendency he was decidedly opposed to the rationalism of his time, even though he ridiculed the pedantry of an antiquated orthodo.xy. He became involved in a controversy with Friedrich Jacobi, in which he based his own position on the Biblical proof of redemption through Christ, and his general view was that philosophy and human reason are subordinate in credibility to revelation.
Bibliography: The Werke were edited by C. Redlich, 2 vols., Gotha, 1882; selections are in Meyer's Volksbiicher, Nos. 681-683, Leipsic, 1889. His life was written by C. Monckeberg, Hamburg, 1869; W. Herbst, Gotha, 1878; K. Stockmeyer, Basel, 1895. Consult also C. Redlich, Die poelischen Beitrdge zum Wandsbecker Bottn gesammelt, Hamburg, 1871.
CLAUDIUS OF TURIN: Bishop of Turin, an example of the type of statesman-bishop under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious; b. in Spain in the latter half of the eighth century; d. in Turin before 832. Although a pupil of Felix of Urgel, the leader of the Adoptionists (see Adoptionism), he did not share his heretical views. He is next found at the court of the king of Aquitaine as a priest, instructing his fellow clergy in Scriptural learning. Immediately after his accession, Louis the Pious sent Claudius to Turin as bishop to instruct the ignorant population in the Holy Scriptures, and to cope with the piratical Mohammedans in the maritime Alps. Charlemagne had acquired large territories in northwestern Italy by his defeat of the Lombards, and used some of these lands to endow the church there, which had been plundered by the Arian Lombards. Feudal service in the field was required of the prelates in return. Claudius himself relates that he rendered such service against the Moors, taking his literary work with him to the campaign. He produced commentaries in the form of catense on Genesis (811), Exodus (821), and Leviticus (825), also on Matthew (815), Galatians (816), and Ephesians (817). His works were read throughout Gaul. At the request of the abbot Tlieodemir, he wrote a work on the books of Kings, which is mostly a compilation from Augustine, Gregory, Isidore, Bede, and Rabanus. Some expressions in it brought him under suspicion of Nestorianism; and Theodemir laid his commentary on I Corinthians before the bishops and dignitaric.'! at court for judgment, Claudius wrote a defense,