THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
spiracy of the Pazzi. He joined the Knights of St. John, and was prior of Capua when his cousin ascended the papal throne as Leo X. Gaining from him a ilis]iensation from the impediment of illegitimacy, and then a declaration that he was not illegitimate after all, since his parents had been secretly married, he liecame archbishop of Florence and cardinal, occupying a position of great influence at Rome. On Nov. 18, 1523, he was elected to succeed Adrian VI. His position was extremely difficult, between the conflicting powers of the Empire and France, which he endeavored to play off against each other in order to increase the temporal dominions of the papacy
Policy To- and the power of his family. Charles ward France ^' expected him to continue the and alliance of his predecessor with the
Germany. Empire; but he first assumed a neutral position, and then entered into close relations with Francis I. After the battle of Pa via (Feb. 24, 1525), he saw himself obliged to conciliate the emperor, and made an alliance with him. Charles's power seemed, however, so threatening to Italy that Clement entered (May 22, 1526) the league composed of France, Venice, Florence, and Milan. After an interchange of diplomatic communications, in which Charles spoke his mind very clearly as to the pope's course and appealed to a general council, hostilities broke out in the summer. The league came to a sudden and humiliating end, and on May 6, 1527, Rome was taken and plundered by the German Landsknechts under the Constable of Bourbon. The temporal power of the papacy was threatened with annihilation; but Charles was unwilling to go so far, and in November, on Clement's promise of neutrality, restored him his liberty and his states. Clement now aimed at restoring to his family the dominion of Florence, which he attained at the peace of Barcelona (.lune 29, 1529). On Feb. 24, 1530, he crowned Charles at Bologna; the emperor kissed his feet according to custom, but was more powerful in Italy than his predecessors had been for many a day, and Italian independence was lost.
Clement still hoped at least to see his authority upheld in Germany by the imperial power. Neither he nor the Curia understood the position there; Campeggio's action as legate at the Diet of Nuremberg (1524) proved entirely unsuccessful, and the foundation of the League of Regensburg in the same year had not much better results, since it led to the formal organization of the Protestant party in the Empire. After the treaty of Barcelona antl that of Cambrai (Aug. 5, 1529), pope and emperor seemed likely to work together for the
Events in suppression of Protestantism; but
Germany, when Campeggio appeared at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 to propose confiscation, fire and sword, and the Inquisition, Charles was not inclined to go with him until after much further investigation, and renewed his request for a council to be summoned within six and held within eighteen months. Clement, disinclined as he was, did not daic o\>en\y to reject the proposal, but he threw all manner of obstacles in the way of its fulfilment. Time went by without
anything being done, even after a fresh personal interview with Charles at Bologna; and Clement began gradually to draw closer to Francis I. again. He had discussed the marriage of his niece Catherine with Francis' second son Henry as early as the middle of 1531; and tliis union, consummated Oct. 27, 15:;:!, only set the seal to the alliance which was practically resolved upon in two meetings between pope and king at Marseilles about the same time. Francis had all along opposed the idea of a council, and the pope's unwillingness was only increased by the new association. To be fair, one must admit that it was out of the question for him to call such a council as the Protestants wanted, while such a gathering as he might have approved would have done no good. The council idea was really only a stick which Charles kept to beat the pope with, in the hope of furthering his own political and ecclesiastical plans.
The worst reproach that can be brought against Clement's policy is its utter fruitlessness and purely negative character. During his pontificate the new doctrines made giant strides in Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland, acquired con- His Policy siderable power in France and England,
Fruitless and threatened even Italy and Spain, and Futile. Clement's policy, intended to strengthen himself and his family as temporal powers, really helped his ecclesiastical opponents. The loss of England was a consequence of this policy (see Cranmbr, Thomas). This, the perpetual insistence of Charles upon a council, the discord of his Florentine relatives, and the general failure of his plans so preyed upon Clement as to hasten his end, which came Sept. 25, 1534, leaving the papacy notably poorer in both temporal and spiritual power for his rule. (A. Hauck.)
Bibliography: Bullarium Romanum, vi. 26, Turin, 1860; P. Balan, Monumenta sceculi xvi., Innsbruck, 1885; idem, La PoUtica di Clemente VII, Rome, 1884; W. Hellwig, Die politische Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., Leipsic, 1889; S. Ehses, Bomische Dokumente zur Geschichte der Ehescheidung HeinrichsVIII ., Paderborn, 1893; idem, in Romische Quartalschrift, 1891, p. 292, 1892, p. 220; Hefele, Concilienaeschichte, ix. 325 sqq.; Ranke, Popes, i. 74-98, iii. 28-96; Bower, Popes, iii. 302-310; Creighton, Papacy, vi. 275 sqq.; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 220-273; Neander, Christian Church, vii. 47- 49, 52, 55-58.
Clement VIH. (Ippolito Aldobrandini) : Pope 1592-1605. He was elected in a short but stormy conclave (Jan. 10-30), as the candidate of the " cardinals' party," which aimed at vindicating the independence of the Curia against Spanish influence. This was the task of his pontificate; he accomplished it slowly but surely. In French politics he took the side of the League against Henry of Navarre, and proceeded with great caution toward his reception into the Church, giving him solemn absolution on Dec. 17, 1595. His good understanding with Henry IV helped to free the papacy from the power of Spain and to restore French influence in Italy. Henry's support made it possible for Clement in 1598, on the extinction of the direct line of the house of Este, to resume possession of the duchy of Ferrara as an ancient papal fief; and in return the pope allowed the toleration of the Huguenots by the Edict of Nantes.