THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
dom been equaled by his followers. In his treatment of authority he gave it a different bearing from that which it had had with the older scholastics; it became a positive ecclesiastical law, from which no deviation could be tolerated, and
10. The this legal conception of orthodoxy Importance marked out the line in which the later of Scotus. nominalist theology followed. According to his idea of God, all that is must be referred to the absolutely free will of the Creator; and the task of learning is therefore not the working out of what is rationally necessary but the determination of that which is positively ordained by God. This is particularly true of theology, which, embracing a number of contingent dispositions of God, has to deal with a peculiar range of facts. This explains Scotus's feeling for the particular and the individual, as well as the free skeptical spirit in which he approaches tradition. Characterizing God as Will, and finding the essence of man's nature also in his Will he naturally emphasizes the individual and his freedom in his view of humanity. Thus by his sharp criticism of traditional theories and by his bold creation of new terms and combinations, he set forces at work in the domain of theology which did much to prepare the way for the still more thoroughgoing criticism of the Reformers.
His works are best consulted in the relatively complete edition of his fellow Franciscan Wadding (12 vols., Lyons, 1639), or the new one (26 vols., Paris, 1891-95), which, however, marks no very notable advance over Wadding. The most important is the great commentary on the " Sentences " known as the Opus Oxoniense (vols. viii.-xxi. of the Paris edition); of
ii. His this the Reportata Parisiensia (vols.
Works, xxii.-xxiv.) is an abridgment. Of the remaining works a large part consists of commentaries on various treatises of Aristotle, including the " Physics," " Metaphysics," " Meteorologies," " Refutations," and " Of the Soul." His logical works of which the Grammatica Speculativa is the most important, are also largely based on those of Aristotle and on the Isagoge of Porphyry. Others are entitled Theoremata, Disputationes subtilissimce, Condusiones metaphysicce (whose authenticity is questioned by some), and the Qucestiones quodlibetales (vols, xxv.-xxvi.). Of the exegetical and homiletical works mentioned by Wadding, no trace has yet been found.
(R. Seeberg.)
Bibliography: The best life is in vol. i. of the edition of the works by Wadding, ut sup. Consult further: J. M filler, Biographisches ilber Duns Scotus, Cologne, 1881; K. Werner, Johannes Duns Scotus. Strasburg, 1881; DNB, xvi. 216-220. For the philosophy consult: F. C. Baur, Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung, vol. li. passim, Tubingen, 1842; M. Schneid. Die Kbrperlehre des Johannes Duns Scotus, Mainz, 1879; K. Werner, Die Scholastik des spateren Mittelalters, vol, i., Vienna, 1881; A. Ritschl, Rechtfertigung und Versohnung, i. 73 sqq., Bonn, 1882; W. Kahl, Der Primat des Willens bei Augustinus, Duns Scotus und Descartes, Strasburg, 1886; R. Seeberg, Die Busslehre des Duns Scotus, in Abhandlungen fur Alexander von Oettingen, pp. 172 sqq., Munich, 1897; idem, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, vol. ii. passim, Leipsic, 1898; idem, Die Theologie des Johannes Duns Scotus, ib. 1900; A. H. Ritter, Geschichte der Philosophic, viii. 354 sqq., Hamburg, 1834-53; and the works on the history
of philosophy by F. TJeberweg (i. 452-457, New York, 1874), J. E. Erdmann (vol. i. Dassim, ib. 1890), and W. Windelband (pp. 311-344, 384, 394, 420-423, ib. 1893). An excellent list of works on the subject is furnished in J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, iii. 1, pp. 186-187, New York, 1905. The treatment by A. Ritschl is in Eng. transl., A Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and. Reconciliation, Edinburgh, 1872.
DUNSTAN, SAINT: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. near Glastonbury (5 m. s. of Wells, Somerset) probably in 925; d. at Canterbury May 19, 988. He was of noble family and related to Elphege of Winchester and other bishops. His early education was received from Irish scholars in the abbey of Glastonbury, but his distinguished birth and rich personal endowments led to his being summoned to the court by King Athelstan while still a lad. Stories of his visions and dreams point to some morbid or abnormal nervous condition. His fondness for heathen poetry and study of incantations was made a ground of accusation against him, and, as a consequence, he suffered physical ill treatment and was driven from the court. His kinsman, Bishop Elphege, received him at Winchester and, after a period of reluctance on Dunstan's part, made him a monk.
He now returned to Glastonbury (942?) and devoted himself to the study of the Bible and the Fathers, finding also occupation and amusement in painting, music, and working in metals. Bells, crosses, and many small articles were long shown in Glastonbury as his workmanship. He is said to have adopted an ascetic life and to have built with his own hands a small cell ' ' more like a grave than a human dwelling-place," which served him as living-room, oratory, and workshop. He was again summoned to the court by King Edmund, only to be again expelled; but the almost miraculous escape of the king from great danger while hunting softened his mind and led to Dunstan's being recalled and made abbot of Glastonbury (c. 946, at the age of twenty-one). The buildings were in a ruinous condition, the true monastic life had died out, lay brothers had taken the place of monks, and the crown had seized upon the rights of patronage and the estates. Dunstan's innovations were rather a new foundation than a reformation. With generous support from the king he built up an institution which was more of a school than a Benedictine community, though his companions wore monk's garb. From it went forth archbishops and clergy of all sorts, who founded and ruled monasteries, disseminated Dunstan's teaching, and instructed the young. Glastonbury became the center of a monastic reform in Britain, which culminated in the complete establishment of the Benedictine rule (though not till after Dunstan's return from Blandigny; see below), carried through by Dunstan himself in milder form, by his followers with more rigor.
After Edmund's murder (946) Dunstan became chief advisor and treasurer of King Edred, who had probably been his playmate at Athelstan's court. The young and physically weak king owed much to Dunstan's wise counsel, and the final suppression of a revolt in Northumbria was largely the work