THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
stress of circumstances continued to be felt. In 445 B.C. Nehemiah came with full powers from Artaxerxes I., rebuilt the wall and erected its gates in fifty-two days (Neh. hi., xii. 27-43), finishing with a festival. The most of the repairs had to be made on the north, east, and south, while mention is made of the house of the mighty men, the great tower of the upper palace, and David's palace (Neh. iii. 16, 25, xii. 37) as though still standing. The priests were masters of the temple and its vicinity, while some dwelt in the neighborhood of the old Davidic residence (Neh. iii. 20 sqq.). From Neh. xi. 4-19 it may be gathered that the population when Nehemiah came was about 10,000, a small number for so large a space (Neh. vii. 4). But during the next two centuries the city must have grown greatly in spite of the damage it suffered from Persians and Egyptians. In 198 b.c. it came into the power of the Seleucida?. It is after this that mention is made of a fortress inside the city held by a foreign force and called the Akra (or the acropolis). It is related in I Mace. i. 33-37 that the officers of Antiochus IV fortified the city of David with a strong wall, and that this became a menace to the sanctuary. In thus distinguishing the city of David from the rest of the city, and both of these from the temple hill, the author of Maccabees follows Old-Testament usage. The supposition that the Akra hill overlooked the temple contradicts all testimony regarding the relative levels. The importance of David's city was gradually lessened by means of the temple hill. The high priest Simon (Ecclus. 1. 1) and later the Hasmonean Judas (I Mace. iv. 60) fortified the temple, and Jonathan renewed the protection after Antiochus Eupator had destroyed it. Thus Zion became a fortress inside the unwalled city. The encircling wall of the city was restored by the Hasmoneans several times, and they also cut off the Akra by a high wall to shut out the garrison from the market. Another work of this period was the palace of the Hasmoneans, west of the temple and on higher ground, probably on the edge of the southwest hill, the upper city of Josephus (Ant. XIV., i. 2). It came later into the possession of the Herods, and was occupied by Agrippa II. when he stayed in Jerusalem. Near it, but lower in the Tyropceon valley, was the Xystos, either a great hall or an open place, while across on the east side of the valley was the council-house of the Sanhedrin and near it the hall of records. Toward the end of this period belongs probably the description of Jerusalem found in the letter of Aristeas, in all likelihood based on Hecataios of Abdera.
For the next period Josephus is the authority, and he distinguishes between the upper city, or the
upper market, the lower city, the tem-
5. From pie or the temple hill, the proasteion,
Herod and the new city or Bezetha, but never
to the uses the name Zion. The upper city
Destruction, lay opposite the temple and the lower
70 A.D. city; the latter was the Akra, south
of the temple and situated on the lowest level within the walls; the proasteion coincided with the new city enclosed within the so-called second wall of the post-Solomonic kings; the new
city of Josephus arose in the decade after Herod to the north of the temple and westward about the wall to the tower of Hippicus. Still farther, Josephus distinguishes between Bezetha, the new city, and the wood market; Bezetha lay north of the temple and Antonia and east of the street leading from the gate by the Women's Tower to Antonia. His account can not be followed without a knowledge of the earlier arrangement of the city. Through Herod's building operations the city took on something of the splendor of a Grecian city. Besides the temple he erected a stately tower, which he named Antonia in honor of the Roman triumvir, and the palace of Herod (located by its three great towers, Hippicus, Phasael, and Mariamne) which commanded the city as the Antonia commanded the temple hill. The three towers served as a protection for the city as well as for the palace (cf. for description of towers and palace Josephus, War, V., iv. 3-4). The palace was occupied later by Archelaus and Agrippa I.; when the Romans appointed a procurator over Judea, it was ceded to him and his guard. Gessius Florus and Pontius Pilate are said to have had their judgment seat in front of the structure, hence here must be sought the pretorium. In the upper city was the hippodrome, and Herod is said to have built a theater in Jerusalem and an amphitheater in the plain (the latter probably discovered in 1887 by Dr. Schick above Bir Eyyub). Finally, Herod took care for the water supply of the city. Schick has shown that the lower of the two conduits from the pools south of the city near Artas is of Herod's building. It begins immediately below the lowest of the three pools and is carried in a winding course past Bethlehem to Jerusalem as a masonry or hewn canal covered with flat stones, only twice taking the character of a tunnel. It has been repaired or improved several times — by Pontius Pilate, again in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, and in 1865. The third wall to the north of Jerusalem protects the " new city " of Josephus. Agrippa I. began to build it, but ceased because of the distrust of the Romans. At the outbreak of the Jewish war it was again undertaken and speedily finished. It was pierced by many gates, the names of which are unknown; one, protected by the so-called Women's Tower, was probably where the Damascus Gate now is. Its course was approximately that of the present north wall. The inhabitants of Jerusalem at this time, including the guests at the Passover, are reckoned by Josephus at 2,700,000 (War, VI, ix. 3; cf. II., xiv. 3); Schick would place the normal population at the beginning of the Christian era at from 200,000 to 250,000. In the reign of the Emperor Claudius (41-54 a.d.), Queen Helena of Adiabene on the upper Tigris, her son Izates, and other members of her family became converts to Judaism and built residences for themselves in the lower city (Josephus, War, IV., ix. 11, V., vi. 1). Agrippa I. had the streets of the city paved to give occupation to the great number of laborers left without work (Josephus, Ant., XX., ix. 7). The Amygdalon pool mentioned in War, V., xi. 4 is doubtless the pool of Hezekiah; the name is a Greek form of the Hebrew mighdal, " tower," and the