THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
norum vitas, pp. 366 sqq., Cologne, 1626; E. Alberi, Relazioni degli Ambasciatori Veneti al Senato, II., iii. 295 sqq., 15 vols., Florence, 1839-63; Fontes rerum Austriacaruhi, xxx., pp. v. sqq., 11 sqq., Vienna, 1870; O. Raynaldus, Annates ecclesiastici, for 1534-49, Cologne, 1694 sqq.; [W. Clagett], The State of the Church of Rome when the Reformation Began, London, 1688; Calendar of State Papers, Henry VIII., vols. vii. -viii., in Rolls Series. Further discussions are: Ranke, Popes, i. 180-206; idem, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, vols, iv.-v., Leipsic, 1894; G. de Leva, Storia documentata di Carlo V ., vols, iii.-iv., Bologna, 1867-81; L. Pastor, Die kirchlichen Reunionsbestrebungen wahrend der Regierung Karls V ., pp. 90 sqq., Freiburg, 1879; idem, Geschichte der Pdpste, vol. v., ib., 1909; M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, i. 163 sqq., Gotha, 1880; F. H. Reusch, Der Index der Verbotenen Bucher, passim, Bonn, 1883; Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland, Gotha, 1892-99; E. Gualano, Paulus Papa III., Parma, 1899; De Navenne, in Revue historique, lxxvii (1901), 241-278; J. Gairdner, The English Church in the Sixteenth Century, passim, London, 1903; H. C. Lea, Hist. of the Inquisition of Spain, vols, ii.-iv., passim, New York, 1907; Bower, Popes, iii. 311-317.
Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Caraffa): Pope 1555-59. He was a Neapolitan, born in 1476, and entered the clerical estate in 1494, after a course of studies embracing languages, philosophy, theology, and canon law. His uncle, Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa, opened the way for him to ecclesiastical advancement. He thus came to be chamberlain under Alexander VI., prothonotary under Julius II., and bishop of Chiete (Teate) in the Abruzzi. He was employed in diplomatic missions in the years 1506 and 1507, and was then busied for several years with reforms in his own diocese, till the fifth Lateran Council, in 1512, recalled him to Rome as president of one of the congregations. Still pending the council, he was despatched to England by Leo X., to collect Peter's Pence (q.v.), and before returning was sent to Spain to unite the Christian princes against the Turks. The sojourn thus afforded him for several years in Spain proved of decisive effect upon Car_ 2f a's ulterior policy. On this occasion he learned the nature of an institution which nominally also existed elsewhere, while only in the form it had assumed in Spain did it serve as a powerful and undeviating instrument, viz., the Inquisition (q.v.).
To begin with, Caraffa tried his hand at reforms within the Church. Under Leo X. he served on a committee with Silvester Prierias (q.v.); afterward he was a member of the Oratory of Divine Love (q.v.). And when Adrian VI. undertook to promote reform, he promptly directed Caraffa and Tommaso Gazzella of Gaeta to prepare a draft of recommendations, though their labors appear to have been void of result. In like manner, when Clement VII. was reluctantly constrained by public opinion to put forth some efforts, he called for Caraffa's assistance, though here again the movements for improving the preparatory training of the clergy and for terminating simony were not much forwarded. By way of reaction from so much labor in vain, Caraffa withdrew himself altogether from public life about the Curia. With some friends of the Oratory he founded the Theatines (q.v.). It was natural in a man of Caraffa's character, that, after all attempts at reform from within the Church had miscarried and " heresy " but spread the wider, he should view the policy of resolute, uncompromising reaction as the indicated mode of combat. Ac-
cordingly, when the capture of Rome at the hands of the Spanish and the German troops of Charles V. in 1527, had driven the new order from Rome to Venice, Caraffa was again at work in the path of enlightened reaction. This is evidenced by two reports; one to the decern virate, the other, in 1532 to Clement VII., and both urge extreme stringency against all manner of heresy.
Caraffa both sought and found new methods. Once more, indeed, when he had returned to Rome he attempted reform, for he was appointed by Paul III. on the committee of nine prelates who drafted the Concilium de emendenda ecclesia, in 1536 (see Paul III.); but this effort also proved without results at the time, although the Council of Trent, a quarter-century later, carried out the amendments that were here demanded. In the year 1537, however, he and his colleagues of the committee of nine incurred the scorn of the Protestant^ on account of the inoperative " reform." Still the Curia seemed willing once more to seek a pacific understanding with the Protestants, since Contarini (see Regensbtjrg, Conference op), in 1541, was despatched to Regensburg as the pope's delegate. Yet a strong party in the Curia, Caraffa among them, had opposed the plan from the start; and they so contrived that the most important proposition toward a settlement was rejected. On this account, every further attempt at peaceable conjuncture was set aside. In this connection, Caraffa and Contarini stand forth as the opposite poles of the Curia's policy; complete reaction won the day, and Contarini, under suspicion of treachery, withdrew from the Curia. It is now noteworthy that, in the very same year and by virtue of the bull Licet ah initio (July 21, 1542), there went into effect the reorganized institution of the Roman inquisition, which Caraffa had remodeled according to the Spanish pattern. This was his favorite creation; hence he provided, of his own means, whatever was requisite for setting to work at once, directed all advisory conferences, and drew the lines over all Italy. Fully convinced, as he was, that Roman Catholicism was in a position to recover its lapsed universal supremacy, provided only that every effort were exerted absolutely to that end, Caraffa stood forth as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation.
Although at the election subsequent to the death of Paul III., in 1549, Caraffa had obtained many votes, it was not until after Julius III., in 1555, that he came into the papal succession as Paul IV.; being already nigh seventy-nine years old. The four years that were still his allotted term he used principally in furtherance of the task he had set for himself. He might have accomplished still more than he did, had he not been blinded by his passionate hatred for everything Spanish or imperial, and if nepotism had found no lodgment in his soul. But the latter fault, at least, he overcame in his very last year, expelling the young Caraffas. Paul IV inflexibly plied and furthered two distinct activities: the inquisition and the prosperity of the Jesuits (q.v.). In the use of the inquisition he preferred to strike at those m high places, such as Morone and Bishop Soranzo; while he so favored the Jesuits that one of their company wrote: " Many people even hold him to