GRAVEL
9^1
GRAVES
rechisireis. p. 72G sq.)- Tliat the relics of the dead were thus pillaj^ud lor inngical purposes (Apul. Metum. ii, p. 38, Bip. ; Horace, Jipod. xiv, 47 sq. ; Lucan, vi, boo ; comp. Brouckhus. ad Tibidl. i, 2, 47 sq.) doss not appear very clearlj^ from Isa. Ixv, 4. There are scrip- tural traces of the popular idea that graves were the residence of demons (comp. Matt, viii, 28), who were perhaps connected with soothsaying (Acts xvi,.lG); others, however, refer such allusions to the supersti- tious notions respecting offering to the manes of the departed (InferuK^februationes ; compare Athen. iii, 98 ; Macrob. ^at. i, 13, p. 2G3, Bip. ; Barhebr. Chron. p. 256), or a species of necromancy practised in such spots (see Gregor. Nazianz. Or. in Julian, p. 91 ; Otho, Lex. liabb. p. 171). The graves of the prophets and holy persons were (in post-exilian times) seduloush' re- paired and adorned (Matt, xxiii, 29; see Schottgen, Jlor. llahr. i, 205 ; Eckhard, De adijicatione et exoriui- tione sepulcromm, Jena, 174G), a tribute of reverence (and eventually of grateful reparation. Matt, xxiii, 30 sq.), which was not unknown lilvewise in Greek an- tiquity' (^Elian, Var. Hist, xii, 7 ; Died. Siculus, xi, 33 ; Athen. xiii, 593 ; Suetonius, Odav. xviii ; the Greeks even anointed the tomljs of honored men, Plutarch, Alex. c. 15), and still general in tlie East (Kiimpfer, Amam. p. 109 sq. ; Roljinson, ii, 708). See generally Nicolai, De sejmlcris Ilebr. (L. B. 170G; also in Ugo- lino, xxxiii) ; P'uhrmann, Hist. Unfersuch ilh. der Bc- grdbnisspldtze der Alien (Halle, 1800). — Winer, i, 443. See Sepulchre.
Gravel Cf^'^, chatsats', something broken oj small ; gravel-stone, Prov. xx, 17 ; Lam. iii, 16. In Psa. Ixxvii, 7, ?;"'iJUn, "thine arrow-s," is regarded by Fiirst as a reduplicative form from "/n ; in Isa. xlviii, 19, 'l'iri"'3, erroneousl}' "the gravel thereof," is un- doubtedlj' the same as in n'^I'l'O preceding, and stands elliptically for " [the issue of] its 6o»e/s," sc. the sea's, i. e. the fish that spawn so numerously), com- minuted rock, coarser than sand, but smaller than stones, forming a large part of what is known geo'og- ically as " drift" or diluvium over the surface of the earth. See Land.
Graven Image (^C3, pe'sel^ plur. C"'b'^C)3, a carvmj). From the passage in Deut. xxvii, 15, " Cursed be the man that maketh any graven or mol- ten image, an abomination unto the Lord, the work of the hands of the craftsman, and putteth it in a se- cret place ; and all the people shall answer and say. Amen," we ma}' fairl}' infer with Michaelis, in his Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, that there was a marked distinction between idols and images, or rather between idolatrj' and image-worship, which appears to have jirevailed from the earliest times. See Idol. Pesel, or graven image, seems to refer to the household gods ; an idol is termed b"^bx, elil\ and in some places i^rt, he'bel, both words having a similar signification, tliat of " vain, null, void." The distinction is particu- larly marked in Psa. xc, 7: "Confounded be all they that serve graven images, that boast themselves of idols." .Jahn says (Arehreol. §400), "Everj- nation and city had its own gods, which at first had acquired some celebrity by the worship of some particular fam- ily' merely, but were at length worshipped by the oili- er families of that town or nation, yet every famil}' had its separate household or tutelary god. No one felt himself bound to worship every god, but paid his honors, as he chose, to those he deemed most propi- tious or most powerful. But still he did not think it advisable wholly to neglect other gods, lest perchance, thinking themselves contemned by such neglect, thev nhould revenge themselves by sending some evil retri- bution." (See Reineccius, De non faciendo sculpiili, Weissenfels, 1724.) See Teraphim.
" There has been a good deal of discussion as to the
extent of the prohibition contained in the second com- mandment; some (includiniC early Jewish commenta- tors) have contended that all imitative art was forbid- den : against this extreme view Michaelis protests {Iaiics of Moses, art. 250), on the reasonable ground that certain figures were in fact made hy God's own command. Both in the Tabernacle and the Temple man)' objects were provided which would put under contribution largely the arts of carving and engrav- ing, e. g. the two cherubim in the holy of holies (Exod. XXV, 18, 20); the floral ornaments of the golden can- dlestick (xxv, 34); the various embroidered hangings of the sanctuar}' (ch. xxvi) ; and tlie brazen serpent (Numb, xxi, 8, 9). So again in tiie Temjile, besides the cherubim, there were on the walls various figures of all kinds, as well as the brazen sea, as it was called, which rested on twelve brazen oxen. Ezekiel's tem- I pie, in like manner, has cherubim with the heads of men and lions. Even after the return from Babylon, when men severely interpreted the prohibition of the connnandment, there were figures of animals on the golden candlestick (Reland, De Spoliis Templi Ilier. in Arcu Tifiano), and vines with pendent clusters on the roof of the second Temple, and the golden symbolic vine over the large gate. Not the inahing of images as works of art, but the icorship of them, was excluded bj' the Decalogue. Among the Mohammedans, the more liberal Persians (followers of Ali) allow them- selves the fullest latitude, and paint and mould the human figure, while their stricter rivals confine their art to representations of trees and fruits, or inanimate objects; but all alike abhor all attempts to represent God, or even their saints (Kitto, Pictorial Bible, Deut. v, 8, 9). There were, however, from whatever cause, limitations in fact, which the artisans who ornamented the Tabernacle and the Temple observed. In the for- mer, nothing is mentioned as fabricated of iron ; nor is skill in manipulating this metal included among the qualiiications of the artificer Bezaleel ; while ' in the Temple there is no mention made of sculptured stones in any part of the building. All the decorations were either carved in wood and then overlaid with metal, or wholly cast in metal. Even the famous pillars of Jachin and Boaz were entirely of brass' (Kitto on 2 Chron. iii, 6). The qualifications of the accomplished men who built the Tabernacle (Bezaleel and Aholiab) and the Temple (Hiram) are carefullj' indicated; to the former, especially Bezaleel, is attributed skill in ' carving' and ' sculpture' (Exod. xxxi, 5), whereas the latter seems to have rather executed his decora- tive works b}' fusile processes (comp. 1 Kings vii, 14, 15 with 46; Mtiller's Ancient Art, by Leitch, p. 210; and De Wette's Arclwol. § 106)" (Kitto, s. v. Carved Work). See Graving.