PARE
672
PARIS, COUNCILS OF
tsxt has it, is established bj' the custom of the East, of allowin<,' them to grow when in sorrow. The mar- ginal reading, therefore, would have been much better for the text. When people are performing penance, or arc in captivity or disgrace or prison, or are devo- tees, they suffer their nails to grow; and some may be seen, as were those of the monarch of Babylon in his sorrow, 'like birds' claws,' literally folding round the ends of the fingers, or shooting through the backs of their hands" (^Oriental Illustrations, ad loc). See N.viL (j]fthe Finge)-).
Pare. See Pau.eus.
Pareau, John Henry, a noted Dutch Oriental- ist, was born, of French parentage, in the second half of the last century, probably about 1770. He was for some time preacher at Deventer, later at Utrecht. At the last-named place he became professor of Ori- ental literature at the university'. He diecf in 1830. He is the author of various useful and reputable works relating to Biblical criticism and interpretation. His Institutio Interpretis Veteris Tcstamenti (Tr. ad Rh. 1822, 8vo), a valuable compendium of sacred herme- neutics, has been deemed worthy of a place in the "Edinburgh Biblical Cabinet." In 181-1 he published a prize essay in Latin on the mythic interpretation of the Scriptures, in which he aimed a successful blow at the principles of interpretation adopted by modern Ger- man neologists. He also wrote on Hebrew antiqui- ties, explained and illustrated the Lamentations of Jer- emiah, the 13th chapter of 1 Corinthians, and in a dis- sertation on the book of Job defended the position that Job was acquainted with the doctrine of a future state, etc. (J. H.W.)
Pareia, a surname of A tkene (Minerva), under which she was worshipped in Laconia.
Parent (yoi'tiV). As early as the giving of the decalogue parents were to be honored by their chil- dren as a religious duty (Exod.xx, 12; Lev. xix, 3; Deut. V, 16) ; but as the law was promulgated more fully, their relation to their children was more accu- rately defined and more firmh' established in society. The respect due to parents was inviolable. A child who cursed (Exod. xxi, 17 ; Lev. xx, 9 ; comp. Deut. xxvii, 16; Prov. xx, 20; Matt, xi, 4) or struck his parents (Exod. xxi, 15) was punishable with death. Even obstinate disobedience on the part of sons, who, in spite of all parental reproofs and influence, contin- ued to be flagrantly wicked, was, upon judicial inves- tigation, punished with stoning (Deut. xxi, 18 ; Philo, Opera, i, 371; Joseph. Ant. iv, 8, 24; Apion, ii, 27). Parricide is not mentioned in the Mosaic law (so that of Solon [Cicero, P7o R. Amer. c. 25] and of Komu- lus [Plutarch, Vit. Rom. c. 22]. On the Egyptian law for this crime, see Diod. Sic. i, 77). The support of old or infirm parents was a matter of course, but in the Talmud is expressly enjoined on children (see Lightfoot, p. 908; comp. Potter, Greek Antiq. ii, 618 sq.). The father, as head of the family, had \&rj great authority over his children. But the Jewish law, unlike the Egyptian (yet there the power was limited, see Diod. Sic. i, 77), and that of the ancient Gauls (Cajsar, Bell. Gall, vi, 19), did not allow parents the power of life and death over their children ; although it has been inferred from Judah's sentence of Tamar (Gen. xxxviii, 21; comp. Liv. ii, 41) that the father of the family, during the patriarchal period, exercised also the functions of a criminal judge. (On the ex- tent of parental authority' among the Romans, Zim- mern's Geschichte d. Rom. rrivatrcchts, I, ii, 665 sq., may be consulted.) Under the law, however, he not onlv controlled the household economy, but married his sons (Gen. xxiv; Exod. xxi, 9 sq. ; Judg. xiv, 2 sq.) and daughters (Gen. xxix, 16 sq. ; xxxiv, 12) at his own pleasure ; could sell the latter into slavery (Exod. xxi, 7; comp. I'lutarch, Vit. Sol. di. 13), and could even annul any vows which they had made without
his knowledge (see Numb, xxx, 6, and comp. Gans, Erhrecht, i, 135). But by the time of Christ the tra- ditional expositions of the law had lessened the par- ent's authoritj' (Matt, xv, 5. See Vow. Comp. Mi- chaelis, Mos. Rit. ii, 103 sq.). Much value was as- cribed to the blessing of a parent, and the curse of one was accounted a great misfortune (Gen. xxvii, 4, 12 ; xlix, 2 sq. ; Sirach iii, 11. See Grotius, ad loc. Comp. Homer, Od. ii, 134; //. ix, 454; Plutarch, Tlmol. vi ; Plato, Leg. ii, 931 sq.). — Winer, i, 324. See Child; Family ; Old.
Bj' the old Roman law parents had power of life and deatli over their children, and in certain cases could sell them into slavery without redemption. The Christian emperors, however, soon modified and finally abolished this arbitrary power. In many heathen na- tions it still continues. Among civilized communities the duties of parents to children have in all ages, as a general rule, been recognised as relating to their health, their maintenance, their education, and morals. See Education ; Pedagogics.
Parent, Frani,'ois-Nicolas, a French priest, was born at Melun in 1752. Being curate of Boississe-la- Bertrand, near Melun, when the Revolution broke out, he embraced its principles with ardor ; and having re- nounced the ecclesiastical career by a letter addressed to the National Convention (Nov. 4, 1793), and inserted in the Moniteur of that da}', he married shortly after, and became compiler of the Journal des Campagnes. He woi'ked also on the Courier Frangais, which then appeared, but found small resources in these occupa- tions. He dragged out a miserable existence until the Consulate, when he obtained a moderate employment in the police, section of customs. Having lost this place upon the Restoration, he entered a printing-house as corrector, and died in poverty, Jan. 20, 1822, at Paris. We have of his works, Recueil d'/njmnes philo- sophiques, civiqiies et moraux (Paris, 1793, 8vo). He left several manuscript works, entitled, L'Eiinemi du sang : — Raisonnons tous : — Mon Epitaph et mes Confes- sions. See Mahul, Ann. necrol. ; Feller, Did. Hist. — Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Generale, xxxix, 198.