PUBLIC-DOMAIN CHRISTIAN BOOK
Dictionary of the Apostolic Church — Volume 2
James Hastings · 991,000 words · 974 reading sections
Section 541
ROADS AND TRAVEL ROADS AND TRAVEL 397 avoiiled this route, probably becavise of fiitifriie, and tluis never visited either Colossa? or Laodicea (cf. Col., /mssim). He chose the hi^^her-ljinf;, quieter, and healthier route over the hills, where the traflio was lij;ht. The unimportant places he passed throuj;h — Lysia…
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39b ROADS AND TRAVEL ROADS AND TRAVEL Formiie (16th Dec), Laveniium (25tli Dec), back to Formia' (25th Dec to 1st Jan. 49). The outbreak of the civil war ami Cicero's desire for a triuinph alike kept liim outside Konie(a^'eneral fjave up his chum to a triuinpli if he entered the city walls). Cicero's further uioveme…
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In the winter the open sea was avoided. The ships sailed across from Alexandria to Myra, and thence, keeping to the northerly side of the Medi- terranean as much as possible, made their way to Italy. According to tlie Bezan text (Ac 21'), St. Paul found at Myra a ship to which he transferred on his last journey to Syri…
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The chief lesson to be derived from a study of ancient navigation is that, small as the ves.sels were, and primitive as were the methods of navi- gation, the ancients made a marvellously skilful use of such facilities as they had. The Mediter- ranean was crowded with craft of all kinds. There were recognized routes for…
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Emphatic statements respecting the prevalence of robbers during the stormy period preceding the fall of Jerusalem, and an account of the measures adopted by Felix in consequence, may be found in Josephus — ' as to the number of the robbers he caused to be crucified, and of those who were caught among them, and whom he …
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KOD ROMAN EMPIKE 401 rocks in your love-fensts,' etc. The RV translates ffTiXdSes by 'spots,' and this has the supiioit not only of the Vul;;. mnculir, hut also of the iiarallel jiassage in 2 P '2'^. Hidden, or sunken, rocks is an eminently appropriate metaphor by which to de- scribe the unjjodiy character of tliose…
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2. Rome under the kings. — During this early period Rome was undoubtedly governed by kings, who were heads of the army and of religion as well as of civil aflairs. We cannot, however, trust all the details given by ancient historians of the events which occurred during the re^al period. The broad outline may be trusted…
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who had the citizenship of Rome (i.e. the right of trading and intermarriage) but not the right of voting or of holding ofiice ; (f) socii (allies), divided into two classes — (i.) Latini, who stood in a rela- tion to Rome like that of the parties to the old Latin league, and had the capacity for acquiring Roman citize…
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7. Macedonian Wars. — The possession of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and Spain (or rather the Spains, for the Romans always distinguished between Hither and Further Spain), the last of which was made into two provinces in 197, made the Romans the greatest power in tlie ancient world. Philip, king of Macedonia, bad bee…
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11. Acquisition of Gaul. — The next stage in the growth of the Roman Empire is the acquisition of Gaul, which corres])onds roughly to modern France, by the generalship of Gains .Julius Cawar (58-49 B.C.). Ca'sar was one of the three most powerful men in the State, but was without means, and was anxious to obtain a comm…
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Literature. — The best large history is T. Mommsen, Rom- ische Geschichte, vols, i.-iii. (Republic), vol. v. (Provinces under Empire), last ed., 1904, Eng. tr. in 7 volumes (5 vols. ' Republic,' best ed., 1S94 ; 'J vols. 'Provinces,' best ed., 1909); the best small histories are H. F. Pelham, Outlineti of Roman Hisiorj…
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• Syria and Cilicia are joined in Gal 121 ; ^i KXiixara t^c ^vpLa'i Ka\ TTJs KtAtKia?, tr. in A V and RV ' the reg^ions of Syria and Cilicia.' Si. Paul's habit of using: the Roman names for provinces is here illustrated, tor Ac Q-^o says that he was sent from Jerusalem ' to Tarsus,' i.e. to Cilicia. Ramsay {Gal., p. 27…
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406 KOMAN LAW IN THE NT KOMAN LAW IN THE NT not enforce a rifjid uniformity of law tlirougliout the Empire. Wlien tliey conquered a country and incorporated it as a Kornan jirovince, tliey found in many cases an excellent system of law in force, and they retained much of it. This was especially the case in tJreek cit…
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3. Illustrations in the NT drawn from Roman or Roman-Greek law. — The following illustiations have been gathered from Galatians by Ramsay, though his conclusions have not in all cases been universally accepted. In particul.ar, his deductions from a Roman-Syrian law-book of the 5th cent, of our era have been objected to…
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ceivable that they would allow a confusion so in jurious to themselves to continue. It was not neces.sary that a distinct edict against Christianity sliouhl have been put out, and it is quite possible that no such edict was i.ssued until Trajan's time ; the very fact that Christianity had never been recognized by the S…
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(2) Ac 19-' shows that the Apostle had in mind at tills time a visit to Rome, which again corre- sponds e.\actly to the indications afforded by Ro lo-^'"- ; cf. 1'". (3) Timothy and Sosipater (16'') were with St. Paul at this period (Ac 20''). The fact that the other travelling companions of Ac 20 do not happen to be …
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* AV ' flrstfruits of Achaia ' rests on poor MSS evidence, and is contradicted bv 1 Co le's, where Stephanas is so described. f See the discussions in Lightfoot, Philippianr>, London, 187S (detached note on 'Cusar's Household,' p. 171 ff.), Sanday- Headlam, ICC, 'Bomans'6, pp. xcivfl., 418ff., with criticisms in K. La…
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(2) The position of the final doxology. — It should be carefully noted that there is no break in thought between chs. 14 and 15 (our present chapter divisions are late and do not always corre- spond to breaks in the sense), and the chs. as they stand oiler a reasonably connected sequence of thought, except for the fact…
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To these criticisms we may add others which are no less damaging. What evidence is there of any serious manipulation of the Epistles in order to fit them for ecclesiastical use? There is, e.g., no trace of the omission of 1 Co 16, which is equally local and personal. And if this was done in the case of Romans, how came…
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Since the discussion of these textual phenomena has been of necessity somewhat long, it may be well to point out their bearing on the general view of the date and destination of the Epistle. Roughly speaking, they leave it unchanged on any theory which regards ch. 15 as genuine, whether belonging to a fir.st or to a se…
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In the light of these considerations we may examine two questions which have bulked large in discussions of the Epistle. (a) Was St. Paul writing to Jews or to Gentiles ? — Certain passages imply clearly that he has Gentiles in mind; e.g. V''-, 'Among all the nations [i.e. Gentiles, I6veaiv'\ . . . among whom are ye a…
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* It is in fact doubtful whetiier these Corinthian 'Puritans' were Judaizers at all, at any rate of the ordinary type ; see Lake, Earlier EpiMes, p. 219'ff. t It is not, however, quite certain that these practised vege- tarianism : see Lietzmann, Com. ad loc, for the various traces of this type of asceticism in differ…
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We may now consider what light is thrown by the Epistle on the circumstances of the Roman Church. It has already been pointed out that it is precarious to argue too deCnitely from it to the conditions .supposed to e.xist at Rome, and we must bear in mind that the destination of ch. 16, with its personal references, is …
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414 ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE KOMANS, EPISTLE TO THE the visit to Jerusalem, sliowiii}^ that at this period St. Paul was takin;,' particular pains both to secure unity within the Cluiroh ami, if it were possible, to win over the nation as a whole.* We shouhl nut pass over the incidental reference in 15'" to St. Paul's …
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14-15'. The practical problem of the relation of the weak brother to the strong within the Church. 15*"". Both Jew and Gentile have their place in the purpose of God (the return to this topic is apparently dictated by the need of insisting on unity). (/) Conclusion (15"-end). 1514-33 Personal explanations ; motive o…
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* It may be noted that under the pressure of this vivid ex- perience St. Paul sometimes goes very far in the sharpnetJS with which ne draws the line between the regenerate and the un- regenerate man ; he hardiy regards the new life as the quiclten- inff of a spark which already burns, however feebly, in all men ; it IS…
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416 ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE KOMANS, EPISTLE TO THE Finally, so far aa the future is concerned, God's casting' oti'of His people is only temporary ; it is a stage in the conversion of the Gentile world, and in tlie end both Jew and Gentile will be united in Christ. This again rests on the unfathomable ]mrpose of God. T…
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* A good example of the influence of terms (though in this case the idea behind them is rejected, not accepted) may be found in the diftioult 'height' and 'depth' of Ro S™. Lietz- mann points out thiit iJtpuifjLa and fia.60^ are technical astrological expressions for the ascension and declination of a star. Re- memberi…
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(c) Writings outside the NT. — (1) Wisdom. — Here we pass to a book which undoul)tedly influenced St. Paul. The main parallels are found in Ro I''"'--" (the attack on idolatry), which is closely similar to various passages in Wis 13 ;iiul 14, and in Ro 9'""^, for wliicli cf. Wis U'-' 12'"'- '-• -" 1,')'. In each ca.se …
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Palatine Hill. — There is a general consensus of opinion that the original Rome, Iloma Quadrata ('Square Rome'), was on the Palatine Hill only — the hill of Pales, the shepherds' god. It is with the S.W. angle that the earliest legends of Rome are mostly associated. It was there that the basket was found containing the…
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ROME ROME 419 was the natural meeting place of tlie comnmnities on the lulls abovi', and this it continnccl to Iw as long as ancient Konie lasted. It was tlanUvd by all sorts of slio]is, those of the moneychangers or bankers imludcd. Military processions passed through it. The peoiile were aildressed there. Funeral …
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Next comes tlie Forum Romanum proper — an open space. At the end nearest to the site of the later Arch of Severus stood the Rostra of the Re- public. This was a raised platform decorated with the prows of ships captured in the First Cartha- ginian War in 260 B.C., under Duillius : hence the name. From this platform man…
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fone out. It must never be allowed to go out. ix noble ladies in Rome, vowed to single life, were appointed to guard this fire. Their connexion with the town religion, as well as their high birtn, made them a power in Rome, and they were uni- versally respected. The importance of this cult is reflected in the ruins su…
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On the north side of the Augustan Forum was the Temple of Mars Ultor. The three columns and architrav e of this building, vowed by Augustus on the battle-tield of Philippi and dedicated in 2 B.C., are all that remain to show how splendid a struc- ture it was. The only portion of the Forum Transitorium that remains visi…
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422 RULER ■SABBATH Hellenistic Jew (cf. Ac 2'° 6' 13'). who gave his sons Gentile names. 2. In Ko 16'^ a certain Rufus is saluted by St. Paul. If we admit the Koiiiiin destination of these salutations it is natural to wish to identify 1 and 2, but the name is so common tliat there are no real grounds for doing so. …
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G. Wauchope Stewart. SABBATH.— 1. The Jewish Sabbath in apostolic days. — For the whole subject in its most general aspect readers are referred to the various Encyclo- p.Tsdias and Dictionaries wherein the Sabbath is discussed. It is enough if here we briefly set forth what were its chief features as a Jewish festival…
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A passing notice may be taken of the emphasis which I'hilo, in his characteristic way, puts upon the Sabbath as a positive season to be ilevotecf to ' philo.soiihizing,' to contemplation of the works of God, to moral and spiritual examination and renewal (de Decalogo, 20). It is also a day speci- ally appropriate for i…
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Nevertheless, great confusion has continued to exist in the Christian Church as to the keeping of the weekly festival. This inevitably resulted from transferring the sanctions and some of the features of the Jewish Sabbath to the Lord's Day, and from the incorporation of the unaltered Decalogue as a norm in Christian e…
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LiTERATURK.— See artt. 'Sackcloth* In II DB (A. R. S. Kennedy) and Elli (S. A. Cook). JaMES StuAIIAN. SACRAMENTS.— Neither in the NT nor in the other Christian writings of the 1st cent, is there any trace of the use of a common name to desig- nate those observances which were afterwards classilied more or less compre…
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In these circumstances any discussion of the abstract subject of sacraments in connexion with the Apostolic Church has little primary material to deal with. It must presuppose the whole special study of particular sacramental observances ; and it must confine itself almost exclusively to the general inferences to be dr…
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of these sacraments is manifestly Jewish. A])0s- tolic history exhibits no trace of any real nexus between them and the Hellenic mysteries ; and their subsequent conllict with the mysteries of Isis and Mitlira belongs to a ]>liase of development [losterior to the age of origins. Such general resemblances as their compa…
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sent as existing between faith and the instrument- ality used by our Lord in the perfornnince of His miracles. The faith involved in sacramental obedience is faith, not in outward rites, but in Him by whom these rites were a]>pointed, whose instruments they also are. One particular passage (1 Co I'-'-") is frequently q…
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2. Inferences as to sacramental doctrine. — {a) As rittutl acts of faith and ubedietice toioards God, the sacraments possessed the character of worship from the first. True sacraments are always capable of consideration under two aspects : a Godward aspect and a nianward aspect. In the former they appear as acts of wor…
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inents were regarded as symbolical but not merely symbolical, as effectual but not magical, as bot)i sealing and apjilijing the spiritual benejits which they outit'ardl;/ represented but in a way not yet strictly defined nor yet explained in terms of rela- tive doctrine. The sacriiments were looked uiioii not only as I…
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The sacraments, while regarded as more than empty symbols, while looked upon as really effec- tual, and tending to combine with the nature of dramatic irapalioXal the nature also of a-qixiia (in the sense of the Fourth Gospel) permanent in the Church, were not, however, thought of as having any kind of magical affinity…
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Divine calling and election. By it those sealed are marked by Cod as His. Thejf are enrolled in 'a nation from the midst of nations.' They are made members of the Body of Christ. And the gift of the Holy Spirit accompanying their initia- tion is a gift of 'the Holy Spirit of promise,' the 'earnest' {appa^wv) of an 'inh…
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which characterized all the words which Christ spoke and the same niany-sidedncss of ellect which characterized all the works which He performed. As 'holy ordinances instituted by Christ' they combine sini]ilicily with mysterious depth ; and from many sparkling facets, with iridescent doc- trine, they retlecL the light…
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(6) Prophetic teaching. — Before touching upon the priestly or Levitical sacrificial system, from which it is evident apostolic teaching chiefly drew its thought-forms and its sacrificial terminology, reference must be made to the attitude taken towards sacrifice by the OT prophets, especially by those of the 8th centu…
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SACRIFICE SACRIFICE 433 portance, however, in view of apostolic concojitions to note tluit such saeiilices — the hi^'hest in vjihie the I,eviticiil syteni i)roviileil — availed only for sins of ij,'noranfe, for unwitting transgression of holy things and for the removal of physical un- cleanness, which was regarded a…
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For careful information on the origin and theory of sacrifice the reader should consult the very full article ' Sacrifice' by \V. P. Paterson in HDB, which favours the suhstitutionary theory, and tliat in EDi by O. F. Moore, which opposes it ; also Sinend'a discussion of tlie development of the sacrificial system in Is…
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(c) Epistle to the Hebreivs. — Unlike St. Paul the writer to the Hebrews presents his doctrine of salva- tion wholly in terms of sacrifice, and thus provides the classical treatment of the significance of sacrifice for apostolic thought. His argument is developed in a running comparison between the sacrifices of the Le…
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(iii. ) The doctrine of the New Covenant. The first Covenant was not dedicated without blood (9"*; cf. Ex 24'- ■*) ; sacriheial blood was for Israel essenti- ally ' the blood of the covenant' (9'-" ; cf. Mt 26^). The sacrittces of the Mosaic Covenant were the sign of the establishment of the Law ; the New Cove- nant in…
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they everywhere appear as familiar Christian phrases, wnich suggest how surely the transition had been accomplished in the early Church from the legal and pre))aratory conception of sacrifice to the permanent Christian view which was ethical and spiritual. (e) Sub-apostolic. — In this period the sacrificial ideas met …
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with Him (Ro Q'"-). But he had also his own cross upon which, as upon an altar, the oblation of his own life was olt'ere<l ; he also was a 'iiriest unto God,' and it was essential that he should have somewhat to otter. Hence the ottering of his body (Ro 12'), his prayers and his thanksgivings (He 13"), his good deeds (…
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Literature. — A. A. Sykes, Essay on the Nature of Sacrifice, London, 174S ; W. Magee, Scriptii.rai Doctrines of Atonement and Sacrifice, do., 1812; J. Davison, Origin and Intent of Pn'mitive 'Sacrifice, do., 1825 ; P. Fairbairn, The Typology of Scripture, Edinbursth, 1845-47 ; A. Cave, Scriptvral Doctrine of Sacrifice …
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SAUDUCEKS SADDUCEES 439 genfeld, Die Ketzergexchichte des Urchristcntums, Leipzij;, 1S84, p. 86 f.) Insteail of attemiidii;; the ambitious tusk of expiessinf: the liiHeiencfS in any one phiase, we sliall do better simply to set down what is known of them as they existed. (a) Standard of Jitith and practice. — The f…
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(c) The future life. — It is clear that the .Saddueees did not believe in the resurrection of the l)ody (Ac 2'i^). Did they believe in the immortality of the soul? According to Josephus, they did not. ' They take away the belief of the inmiortal duration of the soul and the punishments and rewards in Hades ' (BJ n. vi…
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good in both, and oflered a higher unitj' in which their diU'erences were transcended. Literature. — See under Piiariseeb. W. D. NiVEN. SAIL, SAILOR.— See Ship. SAINT. — 'Saint' in the NT is the English efjuivalent of &yio^, ' holy,' as applied to the indi- vidual. It is important to recall the fundamental idea of '…
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It will thus become readily apparent that with the new conception of God revealed in the Cross of Christ these two aspects of NT sainthood issue in the result that moral obligation in the Christian life is not merely reinforced, but deepened and enriched. The enervating sense of impossibilitj', and the facile acceptanc…
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Literature.— J. Smith, The Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul^, 18S0, pp. 74-81 ; W. M. Ramsay, SI. Paul the Tramller and the Roman Citizen, 1S95, p. 320f. ; Conybeare-Howson, S(. Paiii, newed.,lS77, ii. 392f. JAMES STRAHAN. SALT ((SXs ; also efXat, a form which is rare except in LXX and NT ; adj. aXu/c6s). — This condi…
912 wordsSource & rights
Public-domain historical reference work (1915–1916); OCR text from Internet Archive. Historical scholarship and terminology reflect its era; OCR may contain errors. Verify quotations and current scholarly claims independently.
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Historical Christian writing; not Scripture.