PUBLIC-DOMAIN CHRISTIAN BOOK
Dictionary of the Apostolic Church — Volume 2
James Hastings · 991,000 words · 974 reading sections
Section 781
As a civitas libera Thessalonica enjoyed auto- nomy in all internal all'airs. It was the residence of the provincial governor, but in ordinary circum- stances he exercised no civic authority. The city was ruled by its own magistrates, who were known as politarchs (Ac 17°). Luke's accuracy in the use of political terms …
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The Christians of Thessalonica must have en- dured some persecution after he tore himself away from them. They imitated the Judeean churches in patient suffering (I Th 2'''). It was three or four years before St. Paul could return to Mace- donia (1 Co 16'), and he certainly would not fail to visit the capital, unless i…
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576 THIGH THRONE part of the original composition and due to the author's defective l<no\vle(lge of Josephus. Depend- ence upon .Josephus has been arfjued most fully by M. Krenkel (Jusi-pUus vnd Lwris, Leipzig,', 1894, pp. 162-174) and 1'. \y. Schniiedel (art. ' Theudas ' in EBi). .losephus, it will be remembered, a…
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LiTBRATURE. — The Speaker's Coynmentary, iil. [London, 1881] 469 t. ; B. F. Westcott, The Epistle to the Hebrews, do., 18S9, p. 152 f. ; J. B. Ligrhtfoot, St. Paul's EpUtle to the Galatians^, do., 1876, p. 186 fl. ; SDB, pp. 600, 688 ; HDB iv. 753; EBi ii. 1466, in. 3620. P. g. P. HANDCOCK. THOUSAND YEARS.- See Apocal…
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to the East.. It lay midway between the once royal cities of Pergamos and Sardis, but its own significance was always purely mercantile. It owe<l its prosjierity to the nMinufaclure of woollen gooils, and especially to its ilyed fabrics. An interesting evidence of tlie spiritual influence of the Jews in Thyatira is fur…
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' Set the maiden fancies wallowing in the troughs of Zolaism, Forward, forward, ay and backward, downward too into the abysm ' (Tennyson, Locksley Ball Sixty Years A/ter, 145-146). Outside the gate of Thyatira, as an inscription (CIG, 3509) proves, there stood the shrine of a Chal- diEan sibyl, whose name, Sambethe, …
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TIBERIUS TIBERIUS A.D. 2. The death of Lucius on 20tli Au;,'. A.D. 2 ami of Gains on 21st. Feb. A.D. 4 forced .Xu^justus at last to adopt Tiberius. l''irst Tiberius was compelled to adopt as his son Oerinanieus, son of Drusus, and then Auj;ustus adopted both as his own sons. At the same time the imperiiitn pro- consi…
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It was in this drab and gloomy reign that the light of the gospel first shone forth. For the his- torian Luke tells us that it Avas in the 15th year of the rule of Tiberius C.-esar that ' the word of God came unto John the son of Zacharias ' (Lk 3''-). In spite of the elaborate synchronisms of the historian the questio…
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The relativity of length of time to the mind is indicated in the conception that to God's mind human measures and standards of time have no inherent reality ('One day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day,' 2 P 3'}. The notion sliows a trace of philosophical influence in the tliinking w…
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TIME TIME 581 two ajres (the present and the one to come) are successive. But this is not the case with all the a'ons of the series. ' Unto the ages of the ages' (Ws Toi)s aiiivas tCip aliivuv) suggests the inequality of some of the ages and the inclusion of the briefer within the longer ones (cf. G. B. Winer, Gramm…
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So far as the calendar is concerned, there are evidences of mixed usage. The predominance at difl'erent times of dillerent influences (Roman, Macedonian, Egyptian, older Jewish) brought into use dillerent names. The occurrence of Xanthicus in 2 Mac U""- ^ (the sixth month of the Macedonian calendar) shows clearly the e…
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Related to each day stand the day preceding and the day following or the day after. The day preced- ing (' ye-sterday,' exB^s, Jn 4^\ Ac T'", He 13') is not 80 frequently mentioned as the day following ('morrow,' ij aipioy, Ac 4^-'' 23'-" 25-^; r; iwavpiov, Ac 10» 14™ 20' ; 7, iinodaa, Ac 16" 20'° 21i8 23" ; il ixof^v-…
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Probably Tiinotliy's lirst missions were near his own home' Soon he became acquainted with the life of hardshij) and suticring tliat his master led, and so grew into his spirit that Paul calls liim his 'son in the Lord,' and tells the Corinthians that he can interpret to them his mind and practice (2 Ti 3'»- ", 1 Co 4"…
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The Epistles possess common elements of lan- guage, similar features of doctrine, disci])line, and organization, and an atmosphere laden with kindred varieties of error, which constitute them a group distinct from the other Epistles of Paul, in fact so distinct that many scholars of varied schools have fouml dilliculty…
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(2) It is furthered also by the appointment of officials of worthy character {3'-4'). 3'''. The type of man to be chosen as bishop. — This office is eagerly sought after, and Timothy is to employ discretion in choosing candidates. They must be men of irreproachable (jharacter, possessing self-restraint, tact, ability …
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posses^""* ^^'■^'^^ '^""S" '"''' """^^ "<^^ "'"t ^°ve a p^e testimony to the gospel, even it.through fittlring. In a liturgical formula he reminds him that the Lord will come to judge. w."->». Advice to the rich a3 to the use oi "■"^^^^2^ Final exhortation to guard the deposit of c'hrLstian faith and avoid the mean…
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tlie sliore of time ; liavinp; kept the faith he will soon reci'ive the crown of life, a reward whicli 'I'iniothy ami all others will also get if they are faithful and eagerly look forward to greet their Lord. (c) The Apostle's lonely state and his recent de- liverance (4""--). 4""'^. Only Luke is with Paul. Some hav…
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Either as a cause or as an ettect of this condition false teaching has vogue in the churches. (a) In form it was a ' knowledge which is falsely so called' (1 Ti 6'-°), concerned with 'fables and endless genealogies' (1 Ti 1*), 'profane and old wives' fables' (1 Ti4', 2Ti4''), 'foolish inquiries and genealogies,' 'prof…
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• Cf. \\'endland, Die heUeniatisch-riimische KuHur^, pp. 16.5, 168, 184 t. Moreover, the Jew of the Dispersion had fallen under the influence of the peripatetic schools of Hellenism and of the Greek lecturer, who played a huge part in tlie Hellenistic world, speculating with cmjity verbal ilialectic and setting forth …
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In the earlier Epistles Paul addresses his churches both with authority in the name of Christ and with paternal solicitude (1 Co 1" 11^ 16', Gal 4i---», 1 Th 4"). In the Pastorals also the same notes rise clear in his urgent commands or appeals to Timothy and Titus ( 1 Ti 1", 2 Ti 4>- ', Tit l'^- »). As formerly he ha…
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It caimot be successfully maintained that already a 'clerical' morality beyond that required of the laity is being required of the bishop. The virtues are ordinary Christian virtues. The expression ' husband of one wife,' for example, if it means pro- hibition against having a mistress as well as a wife, sets forth the…
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6. Christian faith and life. — There is already a 'common faith' (noiv'i] vlaTi^) (Tit P), the substance of which is set forth in Tit 2""" 3*"'. (iod is ' the blessed and only Potentate, the King of kings and Lord of lords' (1 Ti 6'"), but also the Saviour (1 Ti2^- * 4'", 2 Ti P, Tit y) of all men, from whose goodness …
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Tlie thoroughly disciplined Christian, instructed in sound doctrine, will deny ' worldly lusts ' and ' live soberly and righteously and godly in this present world ' (Tit 2'=). The frequent occurrence of the term ' godliness ' {eia-i^eia) and its associated forms constitutes one of the features of these Epistles (1 Tim…
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TBIOTHY AND TITUS, EPISTLES TLMUTIIY AiS'U TITLS, EPISTLES O'Jl tlieeai-lierEpistles(l Co4>', Col P82'3'«), niul in 1 Ti 6' it is almost convertible with the <;os|)el. Christ iaii faith is spoken of less from the personal siile (han from the objective !us a body ot doctrine, twite, intleeii, bein;; synonymous with 'tr…
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1 Ti 22). For lesser parallels see 2 Ti 1'2, Lk 23■'^ Ac 7'» ; 2 Ti 2'", Lk 13=' ; 2 Ti 3'^ Lk 1*. Very clo.se resemblances are found between the address of Paul to the elders at Miletus (Ac -^O"-**) and the Pastorals, espec'ially in the closing scene in 2 Timothy. Paul reminds them of his blameless career (cf. 2 Ti 1…
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9. Language of the Pastoral Epistles {a) The three letters are related to one another by the use of a large common vocabulary. Among the most distinctive words and phrases are eiaipeio. and cog- nates, crili^puy and cognates, 8i5airKa\la often with iryiad'oucra or xaXis [naXd! elsewhere in Paul only 16 times and then …
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11. Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles.— Of all the letters ■rthich profess to have come from the apostle Paul these are the most disputed. A formidable account is laid against them, to wit — {a) the false doctrine which is said to be Gnostic teaching of the end of the 1st cent. ; (6) the em- phasis placed upon the Ch…
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594 TITHES TITHES and lack of logical development of themes in 1 Tim., which may be due to a substratum of refractor}' materials. If Luke had written a free composition, it would have been a better literary product. LiTKRATi-rtE. — (1) Commentaries : J. H. Bernard, Cambridge Greek Ti^slainent, 'The Pastoral Epistle…
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Not only did the Christians of Macedonia give of their own accord (aidalpeToi), but they were even clamorous to be permitted to share in the work wliich lay so near to the Apostle's heart. His ]3rofound joy is intensified by the fact that he is able to recognize in their generosity the outcome of their previous complet…
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In all this theie is no evidence of a giving which is not free and spontaneous and which has not a moral and spiritual basis. No allusion is made to the necessity for the continuance of the Mos.aie law of tithes. This is all the more remarkable as we have in .St. Paul's case a dislinct reference to the parallel between…
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?uick succession Gadara, Peraea, western Judaea, dumoea, and the neighbourhood of Jericho were besieged by the Romans. Afterwards the attack on Jerusalem was prepared. In the troublous period following the death of Nero, Titus played an important part. He has the chief credit of the reconciliation of Mucian, governor o…
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Literature. — The ancient authorities are : Josephus, HJ, bks. ili.-vii. ; Tacitus, HitttorieSthka. i.-v. ; Xiphilinus' ppitoine of Dio Cassius, bks. Ixv. and Ixvi. ; Suetonius, Titus ; Sextus Aurelius Victor, de Co'sarihus Lihi-r; nunierouH inscriiitions collected to 1901 in H. C. Newton, The Epiiiraphical Eindenca fo…
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598 TOMB TONGUES, GIFT OF The word fySeiy/ia as related to ^j-Scitis indicates strictly the concrete re.iiilt in contrast with tlie process. In iiu^iiiiin;;, however, the two words are practically iiidistin^juishable. Tins becomes ap- parent from a consideration of the passage in which the latter word occurs. 2. In…
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The word ' tongue ' occurs in a figurative sense in Ac 2* (tongues of fire ; cf. Is 5-^) and Rev 5", etc. ( = language). On the phenomena of glossolalia, which St. Paul regards chiefly as a sign to un- believers (1 Co 14="), see artt. TONGUES, GIFT OF, and Holy Spirit. Literature. — The Commentaries ; see also artt. M…
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and Psychology,' ch. iv. app. ii.) finds traces of glosxolalia in the Testament of Job and in the magical papyri, e.g. the Leiden jiapyrus, where Hermes is invoked in unintilligilile symbols. The use of strange words in magical fornmlas or charms which is to be found in circles alien to the apostolic comnmnilies may pr…
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Of physical torment in this life we have a few instances. In one passage the pangs of childbirth are likened to ' torment.' The woman arrayed as the sun was 'travailing in birth, and in pain to be delivered ' (pixaavi^oixii'-q tckc'lv. Rev 12'^). Such men as have not the seal of God on their forehead are tormented by t…
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A. SOUTER. TRADE AND COMMERCE.—!. Introductory.— Tr.ade and commerce occupied almost as great a place in the life of ancient communities as they do in modern times. Indeed, apart from such de- velopments as the railwaj', the steamship, the telegraph, and the telephone have introduced, tlie chief ditt'erence between t…
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p by the legions enormously incrca-sed its volume. The armies Tielped trade not only by keeping the population of a conquered country in subjection, but also by the building of those sjilendid military roads which, constructed for military purposes, benelited trade no less, by the rapidity and the security of movemen…
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6. Bonds and bankers. — The bond {syngrapha) and the banker {trapezita, tarpessita [Plant.]) were Greek institutions, as their Greek names show {crvyypa(pri, T/jaTrefiri;? ; cf. Mt 25", Mk 11'°, and ||). In early Roman times a man's word was his bond. Contracts {sponsiones, stipulationes) were verbal, made in the prese…
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10. Roman docks, etc. — Rome was itself a hart)Ourtowii, llie i|Uiiys for landing merchandise being at the foot of the Aventine Mount on the Tiber, and calloil the Kmiiorium (iixTrbpiov). This quarter became more and more covere<l with large warehouses {horren}. Much, perhaps most, of the trattic whicli came to Rome by…
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(c) China. — Silk from China also reached Italy in part throitgh Sj-ria. Yellow silk from Cos (C'o'ce uestes) and from Assyria (bumbycince uestes) made from the cocoon of the wild silk-worm (bombyx) was the first kind known to the Romans, and references to these products abound from the beginning of the Augustan A"e to…
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(6) ]Vild beasts.— The purchase of beasts for gladiatorial shows has some interest owing to the (metaphorical) expression of St. Paul (dS-npio- liaxnaa-, 1 Co 15'") and the experience of Ignatius, who was condemned to face the beasts in the arena at Rome (Ignatius, Ep. ad Bom.. ; Irenaeus, adv. Hcer. V. xxviii. 4). Bea…
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(c) Wine. — The culture of the vine was of the highest importance, wine being then, as now, the staple drink of the Mediterranean peoples. Corn- growing in Italy had been largely abandoned in favour of the cultivation of the olive and the vine. Wine was rare and costly in early times in Italy ; even in the ;!rd cent. B…
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It is enough to mention milk and various kinds of cheese, of which the Alpine was the most famous (smoked cheese being also in demand), and honey. 17. Markets and retail dealers. — The various kinds of food were to be obtained in the large /ora, or markets, but probably most of the business done in them was wholesale,…
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20. Dyeing. — Dyeing was well understood from an early period, especially in purple, and this process seems from the lirst to have been carried out, not at home, but in the factory. The charac- teristic word for ' to dye' is ^airTeiv (cf. tiiu/uere) from the dipping of the garment in the dye (cf. Rev 19"), and for 'the…
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IVomcn's dress showed considerable variety, both because matrons, girls, slaves, and prosti- tutes wore distinctive garments, and because 508 TKADE AND COMMERCE TRADE AND COMMERCE foreign women and freedwomen introduced foreign, and esperially Greek, fashions witii absolute free- dom according to their own taste. Al…
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25. Building, metal-work, etc. — The stone used for building in the Roman Empire was of necessity generally taken from the districts where the build- ing was to be erected. Thus at Rome, the tufa, the green-grey peperino, and the travertine of the neighbourhood provided what was necessary for monumental buildings. Priv…
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Leather work has already been referred to above in connexion with clothing. It was employed also for harness, tilts, armour, tenls, saddles, whips, lashes, etc. Ivory was used for the decoration of walls, doors, couches, chairs, carriages, tables, sceptres, boxes, hills of swords, etc. Ivory work came from the Fast thr…
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The conflict with traditionalism, which figures so prominently in the Gospels, sinks into insignifi- cance in the rest of the NT. The problem that con- fronted St. Paul was that of the Law itself, while the other writers were concerned with the weighty matters of Christian faith and life. Only a few faint traces of tra…
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TRA^'CE TKANSKICUKATlUN Gil Kviiiianian people to<lay. By the cml of 106 Triijan was ai;ain in Koine. In the prccedinj; year it had been necessary, in the interests of trade, to annex the territorj' of the tnrhulent Nabata\an tribes of Arabia I'etnea, and tlins the Koinan jimvinee Arabia was formed. From 1(16 to abo…
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Literature. ~W. Morgan, art. 'Trance' in UDB\ E. D. Starbuck. The Psychohtji/ of Religion-, 1901 ; F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality, 1903, vol. ii. ch. ix. ; F. von Hiigel, The Mystical Element of Religion, 2 vols., 1908-09, ii. 46, 40. J. G. Jame.s. TRANSFIGURATION Outside the Gospels the Transfiguration is only on…
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'Treasurer' occurs only in Ro 16-': 'Erastus the treasurer of the city.' Here the word is olKovd- /xos (oTkos, 'house,' and vifxu, 'manage'), 'manager of a house,' ' steward,' 'superintendent.' So 6 oIko- I'i/iosT^s jriiXtui! means 'superintendent of the city's business,' 'treasurer' (Vulg. arcarius civUatis) ; cf. Es…
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Much that is fantastic and unreliable has been written by Assj'riologists concerning the tree of life. Two facts, however, stand out as incontest- able : there was throughout the ancient world a worship of trees, and man's de])endence on par- ticular trees for support of life oll'ered the basis for a profound religious…
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We are still at the stage where the reference of a cause to an arbiter is purely voluntary, and neither party is legally bound by the decision 614 TRIAI^AT-LAW TRIAI^AT-LAW given. But the force of public oiiinion was exerted increasin^'ly on the side of law and order. The actual execution of justice was left to the…
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Judgment was pronounced orally in the presence of both parties, and immediate effect was given to the sentence. Civil injuries were compen.sated, as a rule, by the exact equivalentof the loss sustained, though in the case of theft by two-, four-, or five- fold the amount (cf. the scale of damages in the Book of the Cov…
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In civil cases, the principal form of action was the Leqii nrtio sacramcnlo, a survival of the trial by oath before the ixmtili's. Proceedings were in- variably begun by the plaintill', who found his man, summoned him by word of mouth to accompany him before the magistrate, haling him by force [mamis iniec.tio) if he r…
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The multiplicity of criminal cases under the Republic sxiggested the institution of special courts {qu(Estiones), which Maine has aptly com- pared with the Committees of the House of Commons {Ancient Law, p. 391). The 1st cent. B.C. saw a vast development of this system in the shape of the qumstiones perpetuw, or Stand…
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TKIAL-AT-LAW TKIBES 6i; complaint in criminal cases passed over to the in- faiiious df.lafor, who was too often a mere creature in the Emperor's power. Thus the oUl Roman |>rinci]i1es of freedom and equality before the law yielded to the most unblushinj; absolutism. 4. Trials in the NT. — Tlie trial of Jesus con- f…
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LiTERATDRE. — On primitive justice cf. H. S. Maine. Anei/mt Law, ed. F. ToIIock, London, 1907, ch. x.. Lectures (m the Early lliatory of Institutions, do., 1S75, chs. ix., x. ; R. Dareste, Etvdcs d'histoire du droit, Paris, 1889, and NoitretU-s litudes d'histoire du droit, do., 1902; M. Kovalewsky, Coutume con- tempora…
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(vv.'"") points to their glory in heaven. For our writer as for James {.la 1') and Paul (Gal 6"*) the true Israel consists of Christian believers (cf. J. MoHatt, EOT, 'Revelation,' London, l!»l(l, p. 395). W. K. Boyd. TRIBULATION 'Tribulation' is used to trans- late 0\i\j/i!, but not quite so frequently as ' alllic- …
985 wordsSource & rights
Public-domain historical reference work (1915–1916); OCR text from Internet Archive. Historical scholarship and terminology reflect its era; OCR may contain errors. Verify quotations and current scholarly claims independently.
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Historical Christian writing; not Scripture.